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No. 71

June 30, 1960

ATOLL RESEARCH

///

BULLETIN

7i. Microclimatic observations at Eniwetok

by David I. Blumenstock and Daniel F. Rex,

with a special section on Vegetation

by Irwin E. Lane

Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council

Washington, D. C, U.S.A.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 71

Microclimatic observations at Eniwetok

by

David I. Blumenstock and Daniel F. Rex,
with a special section on Vegetation

by
Irvin E. Lane

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.

June 30, 1959

SS88BRK ,JUI,I, « 11

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a. pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office
of Naval Research, with its emphasis on dp. sic research, as a result of
which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll
Program of the Pacific Science Board.

It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda-
mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S.
Navy's South Pacific E;cploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago,
under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of
such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the
Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past thirteen years

The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is
assisted by funds from Contract N7onr-2300(l2) .

The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of
papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests *ith them, and do not
necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of
the editors of the Bulletin.

Editorial Staff

F. R. Fosberg, editor

M.-H. Sachet, assistant editor

Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be
addressed to the above

c/o Pacific Science Board

National Research Council

2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W.

Washington 25, D. C, U.S.A.

FOREWORD

The Eniwetok Microclimatic Project was established in the
summer of 1957 under the joint auspices of the University of Hawaii,
the U. S. Weather Bureau, and Joint Task Force Seven of the U. S.
Department of Defense. The ultimate goal of the -project was to
determine to what extent a deep, large atoll in the open ocean trade
\and zone creates its own weather and climate.

This renort, originally issued to a restricted distribution
list by Joint Task Force Seven as JTFKC TP-lS, December 13, 1959,
is essentially a data report. It presents the observational find-
ings from which some answers to the basic inquiry can be deduced
through further investigation.

Since the data presented are of basic significance for the
study of coral atoll ecology and are of great interest to the
Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board, they are being
made generally available as an issue of the Atoll Research Bulletin.

Editors

iii

The University of Hawaii, the U. S. Weather Bureau, and Joint Task Force SEVEN each
provided funds, equipment, and personnel in support of the study. In addition to the senior
authors, those participating in the observational program at Sniwetok were:

1. Mr. Dominic D. Conte Pacific Supervisory Office

U. S. Weather Bureau, Honolulu, Hawaii

2. Mr. Wilson Floe Pacific Supervisory Office

U. S. Weather Bureau, Honolulu, Hawaii

3. S/Sgt. F. E. Haas, USAF JTF SEVEN Meteorological Center

Pearl Harbor, Hawaii

4* Prof. Irwin E. Lane Botany Department, University of Hawaii

Honolulu, Hawaii

5. Mr. Tetsuo Matsui Botany Department, University of Hawaii

Honolulu, Hawaii

6. Mr. Mikihiko Oguri Botany Department, University of Hawaii

Honolulu, Hawaii

7» Prof. Jimmie Bob Smith Botany Department, University of Hawaii

Honolulu, Hawaii

Without the excellent work of these field personnel and the outstanding support of many

other persons in the sponsoring agencies and the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission it would have

been impossible to conduct this study. We wish to express our sincere thanks to all those

concerned with the project for their genuine interest and valuable assistance. In particular

we wish to acknowledge the active and continuing support provided by Mr. Ernest Wynkoop and

Mr. Ray C. Emens of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission and Professor Doty. We also wish to

thank Professor Irwin Lane for his special field investigation of the distribution of

vegetation on two of the islets of Eniwetok and for his preparation of one of the principal

sections of this study. Finally, we wish to thank the personnel of the USAF Air Weather Service

detachment at Eniwetok, who made radarscope and other special observations in direct support

of this study.

David I. Blumenstock
Daniel F. Rex

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES AND PLATES ix

INTRODUCTION 1

GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS 2

GENERAL WEATHER SETTING 4

HYDROGRAPHY 8

TOPOGRAPHY 10

VEGETATION 15

THE OBSERVATIONS 19

APPENDIX I. TABULAR PRESENTATION OF OBSERVATIONAL

DATA (Including separate Table of Contents) 25

APPENDIX II. INDICES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS 149

APPENDIX III. BIBLIOGRAPHY 157

FIGURES AND PLATES (In numerical order following p. 158)

vii

LIST OF FIGURES AND PLATES

(Figures and Plates appear in order as
the last section of this publication.)

Figure 1. ENIWETOK ATOLL

Figure 2. BATHYRITHMS, ENIWETOK LAGOON

Figure 3. BATHYRITHMS IN THE VICINITY OF ENIWETOK

Figure 4. MEAN MONTHLY EAST-WEST WIND COMPONENTS, ENIWETOK, AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE

Figure 5. SURFACE WATER CURRENTS IN BIKINI LAGOON

Figure 6. SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURES IN JANUARY AND AUGUST

Figure 7. MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, FRED

Figure 8. MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, ELMER

Figure 9. MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, BRUCE

Figure 10. SKETCH MAPS OF JANET AND YVONNE ISLETS

Figure 11. MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, KEITH

Figure 12. TOWER LAYOUT, SITE MACK

Figure 13. VEGETATION, KEITH

Figure L4. VEGETATION, BRUCE

Plate I. WEATHER INSTRUMENTS, BRUCE ISLET

Plate II. WEATHER INSTRUMENTS, KEITH ISLET

Plate III. TYPICAL RADARSCOPE VIEWS

Plate IV. REPRESENTATIVE CLOUD PICTURES

ix

MICROCLIMATIC OBSERVATIONS AT ENIWETOK
1 . INTRODUCTION

For a one-year period, from August, 1957, to August, 1958, the authors to-
gether with their other field colleagues conducted a study of microclimatic
conditions at Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The primary purpose of
the study was to determine to what extent a deep, large atoll lying far at sea
in a trade wind zone creates its own weather and climate. Stated differently,
how and to what degree do the weather and climate of Eniwetok differ from the
weather and climate that would obtain if there were only open ocean where
Eniwetok lies?

This report on our study does not attempt to answer the fundamental question
raised above. Instead, it merely presents our observational findings. It is a
data report, designed to make available to meteorologists and others data that
we hope will be useful to them in many different kinds of inquiries.

We are including in this report not only the data themselves, together with
information concerning the observational sites and procedures used, but also a
modicum of information concerning the nature of the atoll and of broad-scale
weather conditions in the Eniwetok area. This additional information is provided
to make our results most useful to as many different investigators as possible,
including those unfamiliar with Eniwetok and with the Marshall Islands Atoll area.

Since the observational plan of this study is described in detail in Section
7, all that will be done here is to indicate its nature in very broad terms .
During two different two-week periods, one during August, 1957, and the other
during January-February, 1958, weather observations were made at seven different
sites in the atoll. These sites were on the islets of FRED, BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER,
JANET, and YVONNE; and also in the lagoon at MACK 1 . ( See Figure 1.) At FRED

For convenience, American code names are used for most Islets and reefs
referred to. Both code names and native names appear in Figure 1.

there were hourly observations, made by the USAF, Air Weather Service. At BRUCE
and KEITH, observations were 3-hourly. Elsewhere, observations were made daily.

Observations varied from site to site, but among the sites they included all the
usual kinds of surface weather observations and also rawinsondes twice daily,
cloud photographs, and radarscope photographs. During these two 2-week periods
observations were also made on trans-lagoon runs aboard an M-boat (LCM) and on
ocean runs outside the reef in an aircraft rescue boat (ARP). On lagoon and
ocean runs surface water temperatures were measured through making bucket hauls
at frequent intervals .

During the remainder of the year, outside these two intensive-study periods,
the observations were restricted to the usual comprehensive hourly observations
at FRED and to daily, semi-monthly, and monthly rainfall observations at various
other sites^. Circumstances did not permit making regular rainfall observations

p

Except for the intensive-study periods, only the daily rainfall values are

presented for FRED. Sources of other data for FRED are given in Appendix III.

throughout the entire year at all of the sites listed above. It is hoped none-
theless that the observations obtained will be found to be useful in supplement-
ing the observations for the two intensive-study periods.

Those who wish to use the primary data appearing in Appendix I or listed in
Appendix II may find Appendix III helpful to them. Appendix III lists several
major sources for additional meteorological data for Eniwetok.

2. GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS 3
Eniwetok is situated in the Marshall Islands, a group of islands lying north
of the Gilbert Islands and east of the Caroline Islands. It is located at
11.4 N., 162. 3°E. Most of the atolls which make up the Marshall Islands are
distributed along two chains which are nearly parallel and trend northwestward.

-'A large part of the factual information contained in this section was
obtained from "Geology of Bikini and Nearby Atolls" by Emery, Tracy, Ladd et al,
USGS Prof. Paper No. 260-A, Part I, 1954. The reader Is referred to this publi-
cation for a more detailed presentation.

The easternmost is the Ratak (Sunrise) Chain; the westernmost, the Ralik (Sunset)

Chain. In addition to these two main chains there are several isolated outlying
atolls. Altogether the group contains twenty-nine atolls, five islands having
no interior lagoon and two, known, submerged banks shallower than ten fathoms.
The highest land elevation within the group is about twenty-eight feet.

Eniwetok is an isolated atoll lying west of the Ralik Chain and is located
some 2,500 statute miles west-southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii and some 4,700 miles
from San Francisco. The atoll is some 190 statute miles due west of Bikini
Atoll, which together with Ujelang, located some 130 miles southwestward from
Eniwetok, are the closest exposed land areas. It appears that Eniwetok Atoll
was originally a volcanic cone, since basalt was found there in 1950 as a result
of several deep drilling explorations. The cone probably initially emerged some
feet above the water and later was eroded away and absorbed by wave and water
action. When the critical depth of sea water required for coral existence and
growth was reached by the emerging cone, coral growth probably began.

Today Eniwetok Atoll consists of a chain of about thirty small, low islets
surrounding an oval lagoon 25 miles long by about 20 miles wide (Figure l). The
total dry-land area of these islets is only 2.5 square statute miles compared
with a total lagoon area of 360 square statute miles. The total reef area
exposed at low tide is about 32 square statute miles. Most of the islets are
less than 13 feet high but are, in some Instances, covered by coconut palms
reaching up to 80 to 100 feet above low tide level. Three entrances penetrate
the reef. Deep Entrance at the southeast side is only about 3/^ of a mile wide
but it has a depth of 31 fathoms between ELMER and Japtan Islets (Figure 1).
South Channel, on the other hand, is very wide, about six miles, and is usually
known as Wide Passage. Charted depths in Wide Passage are only 6 to 12 fathoms.
Southwest Passage on the west side is even shallower, having depths of only about
1 fathom. Maximum tidal currents of two knots in Deep Entrance and of 1 knot in
Wide Passage have been observed.

The Eniwetok lagoon is nearly elliptical with its long axis trending north-
westward. The deepest area is in the north central part of the lagoon, which is
the area farthest from the main passes through the reef (Figures 1 and 2). If
the numerous superimposed coral mounds were ignored, the bottom contours would
show a smooth slope from depths of about 2h fathoms near FRED northwestward to
the deepest point of the lagoon, about 35 fathoms. There appears to be no

indication whatsoever of submerged terraces or cliffs on the deep portion of the
lagoon floor. The mean depth of the lagoon is 26.2 fathoms, with depths between
2b and 32 fathoms most common. Bottom samples and underwater photographs show
that the lagoon floor is chiefly covered with Foraminifera, shells, Halimeda
debris, coral and other miscellaneous fine debris.

In the Marshalls, the atolls rise out of water about 15,000 feet in depth.
The slopes of the atolls are steepest in the upper portions near the surface.
At Eniwetok the contour gradient reaches a rate of about 4,000 feet per mile.
Figure 3 shows the ocean bottom contours in the vicinity of Eniwetok Atoll.

The original native population of Eniwetok Atoll was Micronesian and in 1930
consisted of 121 inhabitants who raised chiefly pigs, chickens and coconuts, and
caught the abundant fish available in the Eniwetok area. In 19^7 Eniwetok Atoll
was selected for an expansion of the permanent Pacific Proving Ground because of
its isolated position, stable weather and the geography of its land masses. At
this time the Eniwetok people were moved to Ujelang, where nearly 200 natives
live today. Since that time Eniwetok has been populated exclusively with Ameri-
can personnel associated with atomic test operations. The number of persons
present varies from tens of thousands during active operations to several hun-
dreds during interim periods. The development of the atoll for test purposes
has consisted principally of the construction of permanent base camps on FRED
and ELMER Islets and of the utilization of the northern islets, extending from
Runit to Bogallua, for shot-site and technical instrumentation purposes.

3. GENERAL WEATHER SETTING

Although detailed studies of the macroclimate of the Marshall Islands area
and of Eniwetok in particular are available in the literature (Appendix III), it
was thought' desirable to include in this report a general description of the
weather setting of Eniwetok. It is the purpose of this section to present a
general description that will be especially useful to those not familiar with
tropical meteorology.

Eniwetok is located on the south side of the Pacific high pressure belt, in
what is commonly called the north-east trade wind zone, and to the north of the
equatorial trough of low pressure.

Wind Structure . Eniwetok is overlain with three nearly independent wind

systems. The lowest of these, extending from the surface up to about 20,000
feet, is the well known trade wind current. The Trades are deepest and strong-
est during the winter months, December through February, with an average strength
at the surface of about 18 knots from an east-northeasterly direction. Maximum
speeds occur at about the four to five thousand foot level, where speeds greater
than 25 knots are not uncommon. The top of the current during this season may
often extend to 30,000 feet or more. During the spring and summer the Trades
become gradually weaker and more variable. At the same time their average or
most typical direction veers from east-northeasterly to easterly. During August
and September the average surface wind is 11 knots from the east. During these
two months, frequent periods of very light winds, especially coming from the
southeast, are often observed. During March, April and May the trade wind cur-
rent becomes shallowest, often not extending above the 8,000 or 9>000-foot level.
Figure 4, on which is plotted the zonal or east-west component of the wind as a
function of height and of month, shows these different changes. Surface wind
statistics by month are given in Table I.

Above the trades and extending up to the tropopause, which is generally
located between 55.. 000 and 60,000 feet, are westerly winds which are usually
called the Upper Westerlies. This wind stream may be thought of as the southward
extension of the strong circumpolar jet stream of mid-latitudes. At the latitude
of Eniwetok this southward extension of the polar westerlies overlies the trade
wind current. The Upper Westerlies are quite variable due to the presence of
numerous cyclonic and anticyclonic vortices which are typically carried along in
the basic current. Such a vortex, in the proper position relative to Eniwetok,
often produces east winds for periods of two to four days at these upper levels.
The upper westerly current, whose core is normally located at about the 40,000-
foot level, is strongest in the spring, from the month of March through May, at
which time average velocities reach 25 knots. At the same time this current is
deepest and most well developed. As the season progresses through summer into
autumn, the thickness and strength of the current diminishes to average values
of about 5 knots with extremely high variability. In mid-winter the Upper West-
erlies often do not extend as far south aloft as Eniwetok.

Above the tropopause and situated in the lower stratosphere is the third
wind stream, which Is an easterly and very steady current. These winds are

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normally called the Krakatoa Easterlies. The Krakotoa Easterlies are weakest
during the winter months of December through February and reach their maximum
strength in the late summer or early autumn from August to October. Lack of ob-
servational data precludes any positive statement concerning their extent. How-
ever, they are generally observed above altitudes of 60,000 feet extending up-
ward as high as balloon soundings have reached. These upper easterlies are the
steadiest and most persistent winds known. Their steadiness exceeds that of the
surface trades .

Temperature . The variation of surface air temperature at Eniwetok is ex-
tremely small -- a fact associated with its oceanic location and its latitude .

^Length of the daylight period (sunrise to sunset) at Eniwetok ranges from
12 hours, 46 minutes to 11 hours, 29 minutes. Energy received at the outer
atmosphere ranges from about 890 to about 600 cal./cm. 2 /day . (After Robert J.
List, Smithsonian Meteorological Tables , 6th edition). For times of sunrise and
sunset see Table 2.

There is more temperature difference between night and day than there is between
January and July. The greatest temperature changes are observed during rain
showers, as a result of evaporative cooling. Mean-maximum and mean-minimum
temperatures by month are given for Eniwetok in Table I.

Cloudiness . The dry season is normally considered to extend from mid-
November through March and during this time total sky cover averages about 5
tenths. There is little if any observable diurnal variation in cloud amount.
The dominant cloud form during this season is the typical trade wind cumulus with
bases at about 1,800 feet and tops extending to the 4,000-5,000-foot level.
Some middle cloudiness and cirrus may be observed in association with disturbed
conditions in the more active convective areas located further south. As the
season advances from April to late August or early September the cumuli typi-
cally present increase in vertical development so that by late summer cloud
tops are normally found at the 8,000-9,000-foot level. At the same time, the
amount of sky cover increases to an average of 6 or 7 tenths, due in part to
more active cumulus development and in part to the more frequent appearance of

middle cloud and cirrus. Average cloud amounts at Enlwetok are given In Table I.
Precipitation and Tropical Storms . During the dry season, precipitation is
almost entirely the result of cumulus -produced showers. These showers are nor-
mally of short duration, but through their frequent occurrence may produce
several inches of rainfall in a month. During the summer and early autumn
months, periodic disturbances in the trade wind current, which are known as
easterly waves, move across the Enlwetok area and produce greatly increased
cloudiness and precipitation. These wavelike deformations of the general easter-
ly flow are first observed in the trade wind current in the vicinity of l4o° W
longitude. They move westward and slowly deepen until in some cases cutoff
cyclonic disturbances are produced. These cyclonic vortices or tropical storms
continue their westerly movement in the basic current and under certain special
circumstances may develop into typhoons. It is uncommon, however, for typhoons
to become fully developed in the Enlwetok area; perhaps one every five years is
typical. With the passage of an easterly wave over, or to the south of, Enlwetok
a general increase in cloudiness at all levels is observed together with numerous
moderate to heavy showers and in some cases with light to moderate continuous
rainfall. As the wave passes on westward the cloud conditions slowly return
(after a day or two) to a typical trade wind cumulus distribution and precipi-
tation is again produced almost exclusively by individual cumulus activity. The
intensity and frequency of easterly wave formation reaches its maximum in late
summer or early autumn, and a corresponding maximum in precipitation values is
observed at that time. Mean precipitation amounts by months for Enlwetok are
given in Table I.

4. HYDROGRAPHY

The four aspects of the hydrography of Enlwetok Atoll that are pertinent to
the interpretation of the observations presented in this study are the bathymetry
of the lagoon and immediately surrounding ocean waters, tidal variations, current
systems in the lagoon, and mean water temperature relationships with special
reference to seasonal variations in surface water temperature and changes in
vertical temperature structure within the lagoon. Each of these topics is con-
sidered below.

On the broadest scale, Enlwetok consists of a reef and superincumbent islets

that enclose a large deep lagoon and that on the ocean side descend very steeply
along the reef front into water that is hundreds of fathoms deep (Figure 3).

The lagoon is generally deepest in its north central part, most of which lies

below 32 fathoms, and it includes about 2300 coral knolls that rise to within a

few fathoms of mean sea (lagoon) level as well as a 10-fathom terrace that

borders the reef "along the east, north, and northwest side of the lagoon."

Emery describes this terrace as follows:

"The terrace is widest where the reef bends outward away from

the lagoon and narrowest where the reef is indented toward

the lagoon In the northwest part of the lagoon,

where the terrace is widest it contains a depression which

extends about 8 fathoms below the terrace surface "-'

\. 0. Emery, "Submarine Geology of Bikini Atoll", Bull . GSA , LIX, 9,
855-59, 19^8.

From the bathymetric chart that appears in Emery's article, it can be seen that
this terrace is 1,000 to 5,000 feet wide. This same chart gives the bathymetric
details for the entire lagoon floor. A more generalized chart of the floor
appears in Figure 2; while Figure 1 shows sample soundings between ELMER and
MACK and between BRUCE and KEITH, along the two lines that were followed in
sampling lagoon water temperatures.

The mean tidal range at Eniwetok Atoll is 2.7 feet; the mean diurnal range,
3.9 feet. During the two periods of synoptic observation, in August, 1957, and
in January -February, 1958, the high and low tides were as shown in Table 2,
Appendix I .

The general pattern of current systems within the Eniwetok lagoon shifts
continually with tidal variations and with changes in the speed and direction of
the wind. However, some generalizations are warranted. With northeast to south-
east winds, the surface currents probably form general patterns similar to those
that have been observed at Bikini (Figure 5) •

So far as surface water temperatures are concerned, the annual range over
the nearby ocean is from a mean of 82° F. in late winter (February -March) to a
mean of 83.5° in late summer (August-September) as shown in Figure 6. Vertical

9

temperature structure within the first few fathoms of water is closely related to
windspeed. With winds in excess of 10-15 knots there is vigorous mixing and the
structure is isothermal. Otherwise, the temperature tends to be isothermal at
night (with surface cooling) and to increase upward only very slightly by day,
with the temperature difference between the surface and the 2-fathom depth being
a small fraction of a degree Fahrenheit.

5. TOPOGRAPHY 6
As indicated in the introduction, weather observations during the Eniwetok
Microclimatic Project were made at seven different sites in the atoll. These
sites were on the islets of FRED, ELMER, BRUCE, YVONNE, JANET, KEITH and also in
the lagoon at MACK (Figure l). It is the purpose of this section to describe the
local topography of each of these observation points.

°Most of the detailed reef descriptions given in this section were obtained
from "Geology of Bikini and Nearby Atolls" by Emery, Tracy, Ladd et al, USGS
Prof. Paper No. 260-A, Part I, 1954. The reader is referred to this publication
for more detailed information.

FRED , one of the principal islets of the atoll, is located at its southern-
most extremity, immediately adjacent to the east side of Wide Passage. This
crescent-shaped islet is oriented approximately northeast-southwest and measures
some 2.6 miles long by 0.4 miles wide. The islet comprises some 0.8 square miles
of dry land. The development of FRED as the principal permanent operational base
has removed essentially all of its natural topographic features. It now consists
of an essentially flat, graded, table some 11 feet above mean sea level. Only in
the extreme northeastern portion of the islet are remnants of original relief
still observed. An aircraft runway, numerous taxlways, aircraft parking areas
and buildings occupy more than 90$ of the western two-thirds of the islet. The
eastern one-third of the islet is principally used for housing facilities for
personnel. (See Figure 7.)

The seaward reef along the southeastern face of the islet is composed of
four principal parts: (l) An Algal Ridge made up of small moderately well
developed buttresses with small relatively straight and regular surge channels.

10

The ridge is approximately 50 feet wide and appears to be dead as a result of
wartime damage and numerous fuel oil immersions. (2) The Outer Reef Flat is
covered by 3 inches to 1 foot of water at low tide and consists of a flat of
algal limestone covered with a soft velvety algal veneer and pitted with small
depressions from a few inches to a foot or more in diameter. The outer reef flat
is about 130 feet. wide. (3) The Inner Reef Flat is exposed at low tide, rising
gradually to about a foot above water level, and is covered over on its shoreward
end with loose scattered cobbles. In some areas large blocks of the outer reef
have been torn loose and lifted up onto the inner flat by the action of severe
storms. (4) A Boulder Rampart makes up the very steep beach of cobbles. This
feature is probably in large part artificial as a result of construction work on
the islet, but the islet outline appears to have been changed very little. The
lagoon beach which stretches along the northwestern face of FRED is a gently
sloping scalloped beach made up largely of gravel and loose sand. In some areas,
however, exposed rock is evident.

The original vegetation of FRED Islet has been almost completely destroyed
as a result of the combined action of wartime assault and the postwar develop-
ment of the islet. Only a few (six or seven) widely scattered mature cocopalms
remain along the lagoon side of the western half of the islet. Additionally
some scattered clumps of native Scaevola and of Messerschmidla remain in the
easternmost end of the islet. In recent years some artificial planting has been
accomplished, but at the present time these plantings do not appreciably alter
the appearance of an almost completely barren islet.

ELMER , which is a principal islet of the atoll, is situated on its south-
eastern edge some 4 miles northwest of FRED and immediately adjacent to the
southwestern edge of the Deep Entrance. This oblong islet is approximately 1.4
miles long and 0.3 miles wide; it consists of about 0.3 square miles of dry land.
As in the cas-e of FRED, the development of extensive permanent base facilities on
ELMER has largely removed all traces of its former natural topography. It now
consists of an essentially flat table some 11 feet above sea level. Housing
facilities, technical installations and uncovered material storage areas cover
more than 80$ of this islet. ( See Figure 8.)

The seaward reef and lagoon beach characteristics of ELMER are similar in
almost all respects to those described in the case of FRED. An exception is the

11

large well developed rock flat which appears at the northernmost end of ELMER
and forms the Inner beach-face In that locality.

BRUCE , a smaller islet, is located at the extreme eastern edge of Eniwetok
Atoll, about 5 miles north-northeast of ELMER. This islet has two principal
parts: the larger part, roughly square in shape, comprises the entire northern
end of the islet; the smaller part, an irregular narrow strip separated from the
main islet by a water-filled depression in the reef, is situated at the southern
end. BRUCE is approximately 0.4 miles long by 0.2 miles wide and contains less
than 0.1 square statute miles of dry land. The erection of several measuring
installations has not to any great extent affected the natural topography of the
islet. As will be seen from Figure 9, the islet consists of an essentially flat
table-land which occupies the entire central portion of the islet and is about
12 feet above sea level. Along the lagoon side of this table, which slopes
gently downward from its seaward edge toward the lagoon, are several small dune-
like mounds which reach elevations of 13 to 15 feet. Most of the observations
taken on BRUCE, including the traverse observations, were obtained in the
vicinity of an abandoned steel-mat airstrip which runs across the central part
of the islet as shown in Figure 9. This airstrip has been abandoned for five or
six years and is now covered with a growth of grass and weeds but as yet has not
been over-grown by heavier brush.

The sea reef comprising the eastern edge of BRUCE is characterised by the
extensive development of lines of groins or rock bars, transverse to the reef
edge. The reef itself may be divided into five zones: (l) The Algal Ridge
which slopes gently seaward with no buttresses apparent. This zone is approxi-
mately 80 feet wide with numerous surge channels in the form of widely spaced
cracks 1 to k feet wide and 1 to 5 feet deep that extend 50 feet or more beyond
the ridge crest. The channel walls are straight-sided and smooth; the floor is
eroded algal limestone, its surface wavy and bare except for sparse gravel and
boulder nodules in shallow potholes. The crest of the ridge is gently rounded
and lies a foot or more above low water. (2) The Algal Pavement consists of a
flat pavement of Porolithon , mostly yellow and dying, under one foot or more of
water. The pavement Is about 66 feet wide. (3) The Reef Flat is of orange-
yellow algal limestone veneered by a thin film of Foraminiferal sand and marine
algae. The flat surface is barren and covered with 2 to 6 inches of water.

12

It is steep on the seaward side and gently sloping on the shore side. Corals
are rare or entirely absent except in small pools. (4) The Rock Bar or Groin ,
which is about 130G feet wide, is a lithified conglomorate, modified by erosion
and solution to form a rough platform about 3 incnes above low water level. To
landward the base of the bar is lithified and on it is piled a mass of loose
boulders of coral and algal limestone. Further shoreward the rubble grows finer
and the last 500 feet of the groin Is a gravel and sand bar. (5) A narrow
channel separates the groin from the islet beach and is gravel covered. The
water here is one to one and one half feet deep at low tide and during early
flood tide. The maximum current through this channel reaches 2 knots. The
lagoonward side of BRUCE is composed of a number of scalloped gravel and sand
beaches which slope gently out to a wide partially submerged rock flat.

BRUCE is covered almost completely with native vegetation. A more complete
description of the vegetation is given in Section 6.

YVONNE , a medium-sized islet, is located along the northeast face of
Eniwetok Atoll about 6 miles north-northwest of BRUCE. It is an elongated single
islet measuring about 1.7 miles long and about 0.2 miles wide. Its dry land area
comprises about 0.3 square miles (Figure 10). For many years this islet has
been used as a shot site. As a result considerable modification of its natural
topography has been produced. It is today a low-lying sand-covered flat with
numerous deep and large depressions extending down into the reef structure below
and with numerous dune-like hummocks which reach heights of 15 to 20 feet above
sea level. The seaward and lagoon reef and beach characteristics are similar to
those described in the case of BRUCE. As a result of numerous nuclear deto-
nations, the islet is entirely devoid of vegetation.

JANET is a principal islet of the atoll and is situated at its northernmost
extremity. It lies some 11 miles northwest of YVONNE and is roughly triangular
in shape. JANET measures some 1.1 miles in a northwest-southeast direction and
some 0.7 miles in a northeast-southwest direction. It contains about 0.6 square
miles of dry land (Figure 10). This islet has also been used during previous
years as a shot site and as a result is largely devoid of vegetation and has an
appreciably altered topography. The Islet consists of an essentially pyramidal
table at some 15 feet above sea level with numerous large pits and depressions
located along its seaward sides.

13

The seaward reef off JANET is comprised of four principal zones: (l) The
Algal Ridge , which consists of a zone of buttresses and surge channels com-
parable in general form to those described for BRUCE. The ridge as a whole is
dark brown with a few pink or light brown areas, but the darker parts of the
ridge are almost black. Surge channels and pothole-like depressions are floored
with sand and well-rounded coral pebbles and boulders. The ridge zone is about
60 feet wide. (2) The Coral Zone is a rough rock flat with a relief of one
foot or more and a width of about 140 feet. Living corals are very numerous
near the ends of the surge channels but over the zone as a whole they probably
do not cover more than 15$ of the surface. Near the landward edge of the zone
are scattered remnants of an older algal limestone that rises from six inches
to a foot above low tide level. (3) The Rock Flat , which is about 910 feet
wide, is a barren surface with many pools in pits and irregular depressions.
The surface is rough near its seaward edge becoming smoother lagoonward with
thin patches of sand. (4) The Beach Zone is covered with a fine ripple-marked
sand at the edge of the rock flat. At higher levels the covering becomes
coarser with worn coral heads commonly exceeding a foot in diameter. The lagoon
beach at JANET is a broad gravel and sand beach sloping gently lagoonward and
extending out into relatively deep water.

KEITH , a minor islet of the atoll, is located on its southwestern edge
about 12 miles almost due west of FRED Islet and some 2-3 miles southeastward
from Southwest Passage. KEITH is nearly teardrop shaped and measures about 0.3
miles long by 0.1 miles wide. It is oriented approximately northwest by south-
east and consists of less than 0.1 square miles of dry land. No large instal-
lations have been placed on this islet and as a result both its natural topo-
graphy and vegetation have remained largely undisturbed. A relatively narrow
ridge, lying along the central axis of the islet and reaching heights above 13
feet above sea level, is the most prominent feature on this islet. The land
slopes gently both lagoonward and seaward from this narrow ridge (Figure 11).
As one proceeds along the ridge in a southeasterly direction it terminates near
the center of the islet, where the land surface slopes steeply down to a nearly
flat table-like area located about 5 feet above sea level. This table area
comprises the entire southeastern half of the islet.

The seaward reef along the southwestern edge of KEITH can be divided into

14

four principal zones, (l) The Terrace slopes seaward for some 100 to 300 feet,
where at an apparent depth of 10 or 15 fathoms it drops off quite steeply. At
its outer edge it consists of irregular lobate algal spurs, separated by wide
deep canyon-like channels which extend far down below sea level. These are
about 30 feet deep at the reef edge and continue seaward to the edge of the
terrace. (2) The Algal Ridge does not rise to a well defined crest; instead
there are scattered hummocks or mounds about 20 to 60 feet across that rise to a
maximum of 1 foot above low tide level. The zone is about 200 feet wide. (3)
The Reef Flat , which at low tide is covered with about 1 foot of water, is a
floor of algal limestone, irregular and hummocky with sandy patches in the
hollows. This zone is about 50 feet wide. (4) The Beach Rock Zone , which is
about 30 feet wide, consists of a rough rock platform on which lie boulders and
the bedded sandstone of the islet shore. The lagoon beach side of KEITH is
composed of a sharply sloping and narrow sand beach which extends down to about
low water level and there meets a flat of coral limestone which gradually 3lopes
downward as one proceeds toward deeper lagoon water.

Heavy vegetation on KEITH is located principally on its northwestern half.
A heavy stand of mature coconut trees dominates this area. The southeastern half
of the islet supports only secondary brush-type vegetation, principally Scaevola .
( See Section 6.)

MACK is an artificial site built upon a very large coral head which is
located in the northeastern quadrant of the lagoon. MACK is approximately 7
miles due west of YVONNE and 8 miles due south of JANET. This site consists of
a large platform some 10 feet above sea level upon which has been built a steel
tower some 85 feet in height (Figure 12). There are no exposed land areas at
this site.

6 . VEGETATION
Eniwetok Atoll is considered on the basis of the vegetation to be one of
the drier of the Marshall Islands. This is evidenced by the lack of ferns such
as Polypodium and Asplenium , and of shrubs such as Pipturus , which are present
on many of the other atolls. The paucity of bryophytes and foliose lichens above
a meter or a meter and a half above the ground is further indication of the
comparative dryness.

15

Even so, the atoll received sufficient moisture to maintain vegetation on
almost all portions which are continuously above high tide. The character of
this vegetation is a result of human activity and the bio-physical factors such
as soil and underlying rock, waterlevel, and tolerances of individual species.
It has not been possible to make a careful study of all of these factors. How-
ever, observations and suggested correlations may be of some value.

As would be expected on a group of small islets composed almost exclusively
of coral and coralline sand with many fragments of mollusc shells, the vegetation
is a strand vegetation with Scaevola frutescens and Messerschmidia argentea the
most frequent shrubs or small trees. Where the soil is somewhat richer in
organic matter Pisonia grandis , Guet tarda speclosa and, on some islets, Cordla
subcordata become more frequent. Coconuts occur in regular rows, having been
planted by the Japanese or Marshallese Islanders. Beneath the trees, which may
reach 60-70 feet in height, there are hundreds of sprouted nuts as well as seed-
lings and small plants of the more common shrubs and plants . Vines are an
important adjunct to the vegetation along the margins of the tall shrub
thickets or forest.

Broadly speaking, the vegetation may be described as composed of three
relatively distinct "zones". The first of these is low, with the plants and
shrubs not, or barely exceeding, one meter in height. The factor which seems to
determine the presence of this type of vegetation is shallow sand or isolated
sand spits separated from the main water lens of the islet. It is here that
Trlumfetta procumbens and Ipomoea pes-caprae , both trailing or creeping vines,
reach their maximum development. Low, stunted or dwarfed Scaevola also occurs
with patches of Lepturus forming open grass-mats on the higher or deeper-sandy
spots .

The "tall shrub" type of vegetation, consisting of shrubs to five or six
meters tall, occupies the major part of each islet. Scaevola frutescens and
Messerschmidia argentea compose the greater portion of this shrub. Ipomoea tuba
is generally found at the "contact" of this vegetation with the low strand
vegetation. Somewhat richer soils support Guettarda speclosa , Cordia subcordata ,
and Terminalia littoralis .

Rocky-sandy spits, even though separated from the main water-lens, are
occupied by this type of vegetation, but with Pemphis acldula as the nearly

16

exclusive member. The individuals form a "scrub" or "chaparral" with open bare
substrate between them.

The "forest", if this designation may be used, is restricted to those areas
of the islets where the depth of the soil or rock substrate is such that a
distinct "water-lens" only of brackish water is formed. Pisonia grandis is the
major species, although Qchrosia oppositif olia and Cordia subcordata may,
formerly, have reached their maximum development in this type of vegetation.

The coconut plantations were planted in the forest area where they were
underlain by soil and in the high shrub type of vegetation.

Since there were two areas intensively studied, one on the windward, and
one on the leeward, side of the atoll, it may be useful to describe and discuss
these areas separately. These descriptions should be read in conjunction with
Figures 13 and 14.

KEITH . Underlying the entire islet appears to be a shelf of consolidated
coral sand and shell rock which has its upper surface at about the high tide
level. This shelf rock is soft and easily broken and begins on the ocean side
approximately at the beach. On the lagoon side it extends 100-200 feet lagoon-
ward of the high tide line.

The southeast half of the islet forms a shallow basin about 1-2 feet above
high tide level, enclosed by a sandy ridge 3-8 feet above the floor of the basin,
Within the basin the high scrub in the chaparral are generally only 1-2 meters
high, though occasional larger shrubs occur. The individuals are generally 5-10
meters apart and numerous seedlings are present. Messerschmidia and Scaevola
are the only shrubby species found. They are subglobose in shape, with the
lateral branches touching the ground. Between the shrubs may be found clumps of
Trlcholaena repens and Fimbristylis atollensis . The rim on the lagoon side
carries the low vegetation with a preponderance of Scaevola , Triumfetta and
Lepturus . On the lagoon side of the rim are distinct rows of Messerschmidia
seedlings corresponding to windrows of seaweed (a greater portion of which is
Turbinaria ) washed up by the sea and the Trades .

The rim on the ocean side is covered by the high shrub Messerschmidia and
Scaevola . Triumfetta and I_. tuba occur as scattered plants and Lepturus is
almost entirely absent. The beach slope is nearly bare, with only scattered
clumps of Triumfetta.

17

The northwest aide of the basin area rises rapidly to the high portion of
the islet. Guet tarda enters the composition of the shrub here, and is found in
reduced numbers throughout the rest of the islet. The ocean side of the islet
is underlain by broken rock of irregular sizes, filled between with sand. This
area was not planted to coconuts and here the Pisonia reaches its maximum
development in an open forest, with Boerhaavia forming the major part of the
ground cover. The lagoon half of the high part of the islet is covered with
deeper soil and coconuts have been planted. The high shrub forms a definite
understory, but Terminalia is found only along the lagoon-side margins. In
disturbed soils of this area the ephemeral weeds Portulaca oleracea and Fleurya
ruderalis may be found. Pemphis acidula and Suriana maritlma occur as isolated
individuals on the high shrub margins of the high portion of the islet.

BRUCE . The islet of BRUCE is apparently underlain by a coral sand rock
which has been mainly broken up into irregularly sized rocks under the islet
itself, but is mainly unbroken in the shallow waters surrounding the islet.

The southeast portion of the islet is a long sand spit with a short per-
pendicular spit extending oceanward. The long spit is covered by the low
vegetation with extensive open patches of Lepturus . Along the highest portion
the Mess era chmidla and Scaevola take on the character of the high shrub. The
perpendicular spit which is covered by high tides has the high ahrub Pemphis .

The main part of the islet is covered by the high shrub, and except for a
band on the ocean side 10-20 meters broad had been entirely planted to coconuts.
This band is underlain by the broken coral-sand rock with little soil or sand
between. The Scaevola is the dominant shrub in this region with almost no
ground cover and no vines . In back of this band the Messers chmidla becomes
dominant. Here too, vines and ground cover is lacking. On the lagoon side of
the islet there is apparently a greater accumulation of organic matter in the
soil. Pisonia and Cordla nearly exclude the other shrubs. I. tuba forma a
nearly continuous blanket on the margin.

An airstrip that had been cut out of the vegetation Just southeast of the
center and a road connecting the strip with the landing on the lagoon side near
the northwest end form openings in this vegetation. The strip, which ia no
longer in use, and the road are covered or bordered by Fimbrlstylls in the open.
In the shadier portions of these clearings the weedy grass Eragrostls and

18

Portulaca (P_. oleracea and P_. samoensls ) form the ground cover. Boerhaavla Is
the principal ground cover under Pisonla and Cordia .

7. THE OBSERVATIONS

Pour aspects of the observational program require consideration: the plan
of observation, instrumentation, instrument exposure (including site details),
and observational procedures. In addition to make the data collected in this
study most useful it is necessary to estimate how reliable the different kinds
of observations were. Except for the observational plan, all of these aspects
of the observations are considered specifically in the detailed notes that
accompany the Tables in Appendix I.

Plan of Observation ; The intensive observational periods extended from
1200 August 18th through 1100, September 1st, 1957 and from 1200 January 25th
through 1100, February 8th, 1958 (l80th meridian time). The plan of observation
is summarized in Table II. This plan was, in fact, followed reasonably closely
with three principal exceptions: because of various difficulties that will not
be described, there were days on which cloud photographs were not obtained and
on which radars cope pictures were not obtained; and hygrothermograph records
were not obtained for every day at all locations. In addition, a few of the
3-hourly observations were missed at KEITH and BRUCE, while at the northern
islet sites (YVONNE and JANET) a few daily rainfall observations were missed.
The tabular data in Appendix I show precisely what these various omissions were.

During the actual intensive observational periods, special traverses were
made on BRUCE and KEITH to determine micro-scale variations In the dry- and
wet-bulb temperatures and in the temperature of the ocean and lagoon water at
shallow depths upon the reef. Despite their relative paucity, these supple-
mental observational data may prove of interest to some investigators.

The extensive observational phase covered two periods: from September 1,
1957 through January 2b, 1958 and from February 9, 1958 through August 17, 1958.
Throughout almost all of this period semi-monthly rainfall totals were obtained
at BRUCE and KEITH and daily totals were obtained at FRED and ELMER. In
addition, some additional rainfall readings were made on YVONNE, JANET, and MACK.

Organization of Observational Data : The bulk of the observational data are
presented in the Tables of Appendix I, which contains its own Table of Contents,

19

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List of Abbreviations, Code Names and Symbols, and Notes. In using the data
appearing in Appendix I reference should be made to the General Notes at the
beginning of the Appendix as well as to the detailed, specific notes for the
individual tables that are being used. Appendix II provides two Indices, one to
the Radarscope Pictures; the other, to the Cloud Pictures. This Appendix also
contains specific notes and states how copies of these pictures can be obtained
on loan. Supplemental data sources are listed in Appendix III. All Figures and
Plates referred to in the Appendices, as well as in the text, appear at the back
of this publication and are listed on page ix.

21

^

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX I.

TABULAR PRESENTATION OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA

N.B» It is recomnended that the data in this Appendix be used
in conjunction with the corresponding Notes. These Notes
describe the observational sites and procedures, specify the
instruments used, and provide estimates of the extreme limits
of accuracy of the observations. The accuracy limits given
can be appliod to estimate the significance of comparative
observations as well as of any particular observation. In
this connection it is noted that even in instances in which
the extreme limits of accuracy exceed the difference between
two observations, the difference may have some significance.
Significance is related to the nature of the statistical
populations from which the observations are drawn, a subject
discussed in some detail in the references cited in Appendix III.

25

CONTENTS OF APPENDIX I.

Page

GENERAL NOTES 28

Part A. General Tables

Notes for Tables 1-3 33

Table 1. ABBREVIATIONS, CODE NAMES, AND SYMBOLS 35

Table 2. ENIWETOK ATOLL: HIGH AND LOW TIDES, SUNRISE AND SUNSET 36

Table 3. FRED: NAUTICAL MILES OF WIND (NOON TO NOON, 18GTH MERIDIAN) 38

Part B. Observational Data, First Intensive
Phase (August 18 — September 1, 1957)

Notes for Tables 4-13 39

Table 4. FRED: HOURLY OBSERVATIONS AND DAILY SUMMARY 51

Table 5. FRED: RAWINSONDE OBSERVATIONS 60

Table 6. BRUCE: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS 66

Table 7. BRUCE: SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS 69

Table 8. KEITH: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS 71

Table 9. KEITH: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES 74

Table 10. MACK: DAILY OBSERVATIONS 75

Table 11. MACK: BI-HOURLY TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITIES 76

Table 12. ELMER: DAILY OBSERVATIONS 77

Table 13. ELMER: BI-HOURLY TEMPERATURES 78

Table 14. JANET: DAILY RAINFALL 79

Table 15. ELMER-MACK: LAGOON TRAVERSES 80

Table 16. BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER: LAGOON TRAVERSES 84

Table 17. LAGOON-OCEAN: LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSES 87

Table 18. ENIWETOK-BIKINI: BI-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS, MSTS - T-LST 618 88

Part C. Observational Data, Second Intensive
Phase (January 25 — February 8, 1958)

Notes for Tables 19-32 100

Table 19. FRED: HOURLY OBSERVATIONS AND DAILY SUMMARY 103

Table 20. FRED: RAWINSONDE OBSERVATIONS 112

26

Page

Table 21. BRUCE: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS 118

Table 22. BRUCE: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES 121

Table 23. BRUCE AND KEITH: SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS 122

Table 24. KEITH: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS „ . . . 124

Table 25. KEITH: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES „ 127

Table 26. MACK: DAILY OBSERVATIONS . . 128

Table 27. MACK: BI-HOURLY TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITIES „ . 129

Table 28. ELMER: DAILY OBSERVATIONS 130

Table 29. JANET AND YVONNE: DAILY RAINFALL 131

Table 30. ELMER-MACK: LAGOON TRAVERSES 132

Table 31° BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER: LAGOON TRAVERSES 136

Table 32. LAGOON-OCEAN: LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSE 137

Part D. Observational Data for Extensive Phase
(September, 1957 — August, 1958)

Notes for Tables 33-38* • » • • o • . 138

Table 33. FRED: DAILY RAINFALL ENIWETOK, AUGUST, 1957 - AUGUST, 1958 139

Table 34. FRED: COMPARATIVE RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS, AUGUST, 1957 - JANUARY, 1958. . . 140

Table 35. BRUCE, KEITH, MACK: OCCASIONAL RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS,

SEPTEMBER, 1957 - AUGUST, 1958 142

Table 36. ELMER: DAILY RAINFALL, SEPTEMBER, 1957 - AUGUST, 1958 143

Table 37. JANET: DAILY RAINFALL, AUGUST 30, 1957 - APRIL 29, 1958 144

Table 38. YVONNE: DAILY RAINFALL, FEBRUARY 8 - APRIL 21, 1958 145

27

APPENDIX I.
GENERAL NOTES

N. B» These General Notes should be consulted before utilizing any of the observational data
of this Appendix. The General Notes describe the observational sites and instrument
exposures on the various islets and at MACK, state the types of instruments used, and
give the procedures used in making shipboard observations. Thus these Notes supple-
ment the far broader descriptions of the various islets given in the text. The
Specific Notes for the individual tables, as listed in the Table of Contents, Appendix
I (preceding pages), should also be consulted before utilizing the data. The Specific
Notes describe departures from general observational practices as stated in the General
Notes, give estimates of the reliability of the observations, and provide specific
comments that will be useful in interpreting the observational data.

Observation Sites. Instrumentation, and

Instrument Exposures at Land Stations

and at MACK

Site Description ; Figure 7 shows the location of buildings and of instruments on
FRED. The shelter, raingages, special anemometer, and the tower on which the regular
anemometer was located were all surrounded by barren ground composed of coral sand
and gravel. The tower, however, was immediately adjacent to a surfaced taxi-way that
was an apron of the main runway.
Instruments ;

(a) Raingages: Standard 8- inch raingages were used at both locations 1 and 2.
Raingage 2 was located about 15 yards SW of a 2-story building and it was this gage
that was used for regular observations at the USAF weather station up until February 1,
1958. The gage appeared to be in too sheltered a location with reference to the trade-
winds; and for this reason gage 1 was established at a distance of about 60 yards
from the building. On February 1 this new location was adopted as the location of the
official gage, and effective that date there were rainfall readings only from this
one point.

FRED

28

BRUCE

(b) The shelter was of the standard Cotton Region type, with the door
facing NNW.

(c) The direct reading dry-bulb thermometer was a mercury- in- glass instrument
of the standard tropical type (USAF tropical thermometer). It was graduated in half-
degrees Fahrenheito

(d) The wet-bulb thermometer was a jacketed variety of the dry-bulb, mounted
in the shelter on a standard hand-crank apparatus o

(e) Both anemometers were standard 3-cup instruments Anemometer #1 was an
instrument that showed total nautical miles of wind on a dial that was read directly.
This anemometer was mounted on a special mast at a height of U feet above the ground
(18-20 feet above mean sea level). Anemometer #2 was a recording (triple-register)
instrument mounted on the tower at a height of 33 feet above the ground (41-43 feet
above mean sea level).

(f) Barometry was based on a standard mercury instrument that was used to check
daily the recording microbarograph from which the observational values were obtained,,
Values are given here in terms of station pressure, which represents a height of

19 feet above mean sea levelo

(g) A GMD-la was used for rawinsonde observationso
(h) The radarscope was a CPS/9o

Site Description ; Figures 9 and 14 show the location of instruments on BRUCE and
Plate I shows views of these instruments . These figures and the photographs in the
Plate give detailed information as to the nature and distribution of ground cover and
as to the topography (very minor relief) of the Isleto Ihe ground was predominantly
barren beneath the anemometer, the shelter, and the raingages and consisted of beach-
rock covered by a veneer of coralline sand and gravelo
Instruments ;

(a) Raingages ; Standard 8-inch gages were used at both the Ocean and Lagoon
siteso

(b) The shelter was of the standard Cotton Region type, with the door facing
northo

(c) The anemometer was a 3-cup instrument with a totalizing dial (values given
in nautical miles). It was mounted on a special mast at a height of 11 feet above
the ground (18-20 feet above mean sea level) o

29

KEITH

EB4ER

(d) Maximum and minimum thermometers were mounted in the shelter in the
standard manner (on the cross-beam, just forward of the back of the shelter, facing
the door) These were standard Weather Bureau instruments: mercury- in- glass and
alcohol- in- glasso

(e) A standard hygrothermograph was kept in the shelter . This was a Friez
recording instrument, with a 7-day setting (7-day chart), and with a hair-and-lever
mechanism for recording relative humidityo

(f) Direct dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature readings were made using a Friez
psychron (mercury- in-glass thermometers graduated in whole-degrees Fahrenheit and
mounted in a unit with a battery-driven fan)o The psychron was placed in the shelter
and the reading was made at the time of lowest wet-bulb reading o

Site Description ; Figures 11 and 13 show the location of instruments on KEITH and
Plate II shows views of these instruments « These figures and the photographs in the
Plate give detailed information as to the nature and distribution of ground cover and
as to topography o The ground was barren beneath the shelter, anemometer, and rain-
gage, and consisted of beach-rock covered by a thin veneer of coralline sand and
gravelo
Instruments :

The instruments used were identical with those for BRUCE (above). Figures U
and 13 and Plate II provide information concerning instrument exposure.

Site Deacription : Observations were made at two different siteso Through February
28, 1958, observations were made near the northeastern end of EIMEH, with the raingage
and the shelter in a large open area lying between a tank farm (to the NE) and quonset
huts (to the SW)o Effective March 1st, rainfall observations were taken near the
dispatchers shack at the airstrip toward the SW side of EIMERo At both sites, the
instruments were well out in the open and were underlain by barren ground consisting
of coralline sand and gravel. Shelter and raingage locations with reference to
buildings are shown in Figure 8.
Instruments :

(a) The shelter was mounted on a post at a medial height of 5^ feeto It was
2X2X1 ft. with the 1 ft. length applying to the depth. The door, which faced NE, was
full and hinged to swing upward. The shelter was made of light wood except for the

30

MACK

back, which was masonite. The door was fully louvred, but the other five interior
faces were solid.

(b) The maximum and minimum thermometer was of the U-type (mercury- in- glass)
with a magnet for re-setting the ridero It was graduated in whole-degrees Fahrenheit^
The thermometer was mounted on an upright post in the shelter e

(c) The raingage was a standard 8- inch one.

(d) Direct dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings were taken using a Friez psychron
(mercury- in-glass thermometers graduated in whole-degrees Fahrenheit and mounted in a
unit with a battery-driven fan)o Psychron readings were made outside the shelter, in
the shade, at a 5-foot height with the observer standing to leeward of the psychron

(e) A standard recording hygrothermograph was maintained in the shelter ( see
description of this instrument under BRUCE instrumentation, above).

Site Description ; This tower site is diagrammed in Figure 12. The raingage and
shelter, whose location is also shown in this figure, were located on a side platform
immediately to the south of the tower and at a height of 17^ feet above mean low
lagoon water.
Instruments;

(a) The standard, 8- inch raingage was at the extreme SE edge of the platformo
Because it was only four feet south of the standard shelter, the catch was probably
biased due to eddies, especially when rainfall occurred with a north wind.

(b) The instrument shelter was of the standard Cotton Region type with the
door on the west side.

(c) Maximum and minimum thermometers , the hygrothermograph « and the psychron
for direct reading of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures were of the same kinds that
were used at KEITH and BRUCE ( see above).

JANET AND YVONNE

Only standard 8- inch raingages were installed on these islets s In both instances
they were placed on level terrain comprised of coralline sand and gravel with beach-
rock beneath. Both were well exposed, with no obstruction of any kind within 100
yards o Their locations are shown in Figure 10.

31

Shipboard Observations

LAGOON TRAVERSES

Lagoon traverses were made on M-boats (LCMs) Water temperatures were measured
through making hauls in a canvas bucket, the hauls being made on the windward side
of the boat, 1-3 yards to the stern of mid-ship, well forward from the exhausto Upon
completing the haul, the bucket was placed in the shade of the steering-house and a
thermometer was placed in the water with its bulb at a depth of 6-10 inches and held
there until the mercury reached its lowest point. Except where otherwise noted in
the Specific Table Notes that follow, the thermometer that was used was a special
water thermometer, graduated in tenths of a degree Fahrenheit and mounted on a wooden
backing with a perforated brass shield surrounding the thermometer bulb at a distance
from the bulb of about 2/3 incho Thus the bulb was shielded from the sun but was
fully exposed to the water o Dry-bulb and wet-bulb air temperatures were obtained
from the deck of the boat on the windward side well forward of the exhaust with the
instrument shielded from the direct rays of the sun. Except where otherwise noted,
observations were made with a psychron ( see instrument description under BRUCE, above);
and whether or not a psychron was used the observations were made at a height of
about 5 feet above the deck or a total height of about 11 feet above the water<>

OCEAN TRAVERSES

Ocean traverses were made on a crash-boat (AVP), with the observations being made
forward, almost to the bow As in the case of the lagoon observations ( see above),
water temperatures were obtained through bucket hauls and air temperatures (dry- bulb
and wet-bulb) were obtained using a psychrono Air temperatures were taken at a
height of about 5 feet above the forward (cockpit) deck, or about 7 feet above the
water o

USNS T-LST 618

Air temperature observations were from instruments in a louvred shelter on the port
bridge wing, at a height of about 30 feet above the water. Thermometers were probably
alcohol- in-glass, though this cannot be checked absolutely. Air pressure was from a
Taylor aneroid located in the chart room. It was temperature-compensated in 195 U and
corrections during 1954-1958 (inclusive) have not exceeded 0.05 inch, tfater temper -
atures were standard intake temperatures.

32

Part A. General Tables
NOTES ; TABLES 1-3

TABLE 1. ABBREVIATIONS, CODE NAMES, AND SYMBOLS.

This Table is self-explanatory. With one exception it lists all abbreviations, code names,
and symbols used in the text and in the Tables. The exception is the code names for locations
other than OSCAR, REX, and SAM. The remaining code names used herein are shown in Figure 1.

TABLE 2. ENIWETOK ATOLL: HIGH AND LOW TIDES, SUNRISE AND SUNSET.

All times given are 180th meridian. Tidal heights are correct to 0.1 foot at the north-
west end of FRED, on the lagoon side, where the tide gage is located. Heights vary only by a
few inches from one to another islet, not including the effect of piling up of water by wind.
From the observations of surveyers at Eniwetok (personal communication), it is judged that with
moderate to strong tradewinds blowing there is an increase in tide height of from 1 to 2 feet
along the east coasts of the islets, this increase being above that observed at the tide gage.
This increase occurs on the lagoon side of the western islets as well as on the ocean side of
the eastern islets.

As for currents in the lagoon, according to H. 0. Pub. No. 165A, Sailing Directions for
the Pacific Islands (1952), "In Deep Entrance a maximum flood current of 2 knots, setting
westward, occurs 2 hours aft^r low tide. A maximum ebb of l£ knots, setting southeastward,
occurs 50 minutes after high tide. Slack water occurs 40 minutes before low tide, and 20
minutes after high tide. • • • • In Wide Passage a maximum flood current of 1 knot, setting
westward; occurs lh. 10m. after high tide. A maximum ebb of 0.7 knot, setting 210°, occurs
2h. 27m. before low tide. Slack water occurs 2h. 48m. after high tide, and lh. 28m. before
low tide."

Sunrise and sunset are defined in the standard manner the times being given as those "at
which the upper edge of the Sun's disk is actually seen on a regular and unobstructed horizon,
under normal atmospheric conditions, by an observer at zero elevation above the Earth's
surface in a level region." (Introduction to Tables of Sunrise. Sunset, and Twilight . U. S.
Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.)

33

TABLE 3. FRED: NAUTICAL MILES OF WIND (NOON TO NOON, 180TH MERIDIAN).

The low level anemometer was at the same height as those on BRUCE and KEITH. During the
first Intensive Phase of the study (August-September, 1957) these three anemometers were
compared both before and after the 2-week observational period. Comparisons were made through
mounting each anemometer on a 6-foot pole and placing these along the beach on ELMER, with the
anemometers aligned up-beach one from the other at successive distances of about 10 feet. The
anemometers were rotated as to position and the total values were compared. 5-6 hours was
allotted for each comparative run. Results of the inter- calibrations, before and after the
observational period, were as follows (in percent of wind totals):

BEFORE : FRED and KEITH anemometers agreed consistently within 4$, with the FRED
anemometer consistently the higher.

BRUCE anemometer consistently the lowest of the three, with the values ranging
from 25-33$ of the mean of FRED and KEITH.

AFTER : FRED consistently higher than BRUCE by 1-2$.

KEITH consistently 2-15$ lower than the mean of FRED and BRUCE.

After the second calibration run, it was discovered that a nut had fallen into the housing
of the KEITH anemometer. When this occurred is not known.

During the second Intensive Phase (January-February, 1958) there was no low- level
anemometer at FRED, since it was found that one of the three totalizing anemometers was broken
and it was decided to retain the wind measurements on BRUCE and KEITH, rather than FRED.
Circumstances did not permit making calibration runs prior to this second observational period,
but runs made afterward showed that the BRUCE and KEITH anemometers agreed within 10$. It is
not known which, if either, anemometer was consistently higher.

NOTE : This comparative table for FRED may permit an estimate of low- level wind conditions
during the second Intensive Phase through reducing the wind readings at the FRED tower (high
level) by a factor of 22$. It should be noted, however, that Table 3 shows a general tendency
for closer agreement between the high and low anemometers when winds are higher than when winds
are lower; and since winds were decidedly higher during January-February than during August-
September, this reduction coefficient should probably be decreased somewhat.

34

ABBREVIATIONS, CODE NAMES, AND SIMBOLS
(For further details see NOTES for individual tables.)

TABLE 1

Ac

Altocumulus

As

Altostratus

b

Cloud height determined by balloon

C

Calm

Cb

Cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) cloud

Cc

Cirrocumulus

C H

High cloud

Ci

Cirrus

C L

Low cloud

C LMH

Clouds: low, middle, high

°M

Middle cloud

Cs

Cirrostratus

Cu

Cumulus

DD

Wind direction (to points of the

DDFF

FF,

m

M

MB

N

N

8

N
OSCAR

P

REX

compass or in tens of degrees)

Wind direction (to points of the
compass or tens of degrees)
and windspeed (in knots unless
otherwise specified)

Cloud height estimated

Mean windspeed in knots over three
hours ending at observation time.

Cloud height measured (with ceiling
light or ceilometer)

Observation missing because of
technical difficulty.

Motor-boating. Humidity too low to
be measured accurately. (Estimated
value given in parentheses.)

Total sky cover (in tenths)

Total sky cover (in eighths)

Total opaque sky cover (in tenths)

Name of lagoon tower SE of MACK,
(see map)

Surface air pressure, at station
height

Very small islet 3/4 mile NNW of
ELMER (on northern edge of deep
entrance ) .

RH Relative humidity (in percent)

RR Rainfall amount since last observation
or for period shown.

RR L Rainfall at gage on lagoon side of BRUCE.

RRq Rainfall at gage on ocean side of BRUCE.

SAM A very small islet on the eastern reef
1-7/8 miles NNW of BRUCE.

Sand Island Small sand islet between ELMER
and FRED.

Sc Stratocumulus

SEA (code) State of Sea is given in code

according to the following scale:

- Calm sea, less than 1 foot

1 - Smooth sea, 1-2 feet

2 - Slight sea, 2-3 feet, occasional

small whitecaps

3 - Moderate sea, 3-5 feet, sustained

whitecaps
it - Rough sea, 5-8 feet, large waves,
large sustained whitecaps

St

T

TT

T n T n

TT.

TT„

TxT x

WX
( )

Stratus

Trace of rainfall (less than 0.01 inch)

Dry bulb temperature (in Fahrenheit unless
"C specified, when in centigrade)

T^Tj Dewpoint temperature

Minimum temperature since time of last
observation of minimum.

Surface sea water temperature

Wet bulb temperature

Maximum temperature since time of last
observation of maximum.

Present weather

Bearing in degrees

Approximate value, or when used with cloud
type indicates less than one-tenth.

Approximate value, or (for cloud type)
identification uncertain.

35

PLACE: ENIWETOK ATOLL

HIGH AND LOW T

TIDES

DATE

TIME

HEIGHT*
(ft.)

8/18/57

0200
0753
1407
2041

1.8
3.4
1.7
3.5

8/19/57

0307
0852
1509
2210

2.1
3.0
1.9
3.4

8/20/57

0518
1101
1710

2.2

2.8
2.1

8/21/57

0010

0714
1308
1858

3.5
1.9
3.0
1.8

8/22/57

0131
0812
1410
2002

3.9
1.5
3.4
1.5

8/23/57

0224
0856
1455
2051

4.3
1.1
3.8
1.1

8/24/57

0309
0934
1534
2134

4.7
0.7
4.2
0.7

8/25/57

0349
1010
1612
2215

5.0
0.5
4.5
0.5

8/26/57

0428
1045
1648
2254

5.2
0.3
4.8
0.4

8/27/57

0505
1120
1724
2332

5.1
0.3
4.8
0.4

8/28/57

0542
1153
1800

4.9
0.5
4.7

8/29/57

0010
0617
1227
1837

0.6
4.5
0.8
4.5

DATE

1/25/58

1/26/58

1/27/58

1/28/58

1/29/58

L/30/58

L/3V58

2/1/58

2/2/58

2/3/58

2/4/58

2/5/58

TABLE 2

TIME

HEIGHT*
(ft.)

0054
0701
1257
1904

0.6
3.8
1.6
4.9

0122
0734
1329
1934

1.1
3.6
1.5
3.6

0152
0812
1411
2009

1.4
3.5
1.8

3.3

0239
0905
1512
2102

1.6

3.3
2.1
2.9

0329
1035
1719
2300

1.8
3.1
2.2
2.8

0518
1231
1924

2.0
3.3
1.9

0111
0700
1343
2022

2.1
1.8
3.7
1.5

0217
0803
1433
2103

3.2

1.5
4.1
1.2

0302
0850
1513
2140

3.5
1.2

4.5
0.8

0340
0931
1551
2215

3.8

0.8
4.8
0.5

0415
1011
1628
2250

4.2
0.5
5.0
0.3

0451
1049
1705
2323

4.4
0.4
5.1
0.2

36

PLACE: ENIWETOK

ATOLL H

IGH AND LOW TI

TIDES

DATE

TIME

HEIGHT*
(ft.)

8/30/57

0050
0654
1300
1916

0.9
4.2
1.1
4.2

8/31/57

0132
0730
1334

1958

1.4
3.7
1.5
3.8

9/1/57

0223
0812
1414
2058

1.8
3.2
1.8
3.5

DATE

2/6/58

2/7/53

2/8/58

TABLE 2
(Concluded)

TIME

HEIGHT*
(ft.)

0527
1127
1741
2357

4.5

0.4
5.0
0.3

0603
1205
1818

4.5

0.5

4.8

0033
0640
1245
1855

0.5

4.4
0.7
4.4

SUN

DATES

8/18 - 9/1/57

1/25 - 2/8/58

SUNRISE**
0700
0735

SUNSET**

1930 - 1920
1910 - 1915

Tide height above \ ft. below mean low water springs for Kwajalein.
Source: U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Tide Tables . Central and Western Pacific
Ocean and Indian Ocean . 1958 (Wash. D. C, Gov't Prtg. Office).

** To nearest five minutes, 180th Meridian time.

37

PLACE: FRED

DATE

NAUTICAL MILES OF WIND (NOON TO NOON, 180th MERIDIAN)

- COMPARATIVE VALUES -

IAfiI£_3

18 - 19 August, 1957

19 - 20 August, 1957

20 - 21 August, 1957

21-22 August, 1957

22 - 23 August, 1957

23-24 August, 1957

24 - 25 August, 1957

25-26 August, 1957

26 - 27 August, 1957

27 - 28 August, 1957

28 - 29 August, 1957

29 - 30 August, 1957

ANEMOMETER #1
(On ground-based mast)

92.2
217.5
235.4
181.9
180.5
288.5
131.8

51.0
187.5
208.5
154.0
143.1

30 August - 1 September, 1957* 417.7

2489.6

*To 0900, 1 September.

ANEMOMETER #2
(On tower)

176.0
283.0
254.0
218.0
259.0
262.0
219.0
110.0
212.0
218.0
210.0
251.0
526.0

3198.0

38

Part B. Observational Data, First Intensive
Phase (August 18 — September 1, 1957)

NOTES ; TABLES 4-18

TABLE 4. FRED: HOURLY OBSERVATIONS AND DAILY SUMMARY.

These Notes apply both to Table 4 and Table 19, which presents similar observational data
for the second Intensive Phase*

P represents station pressure and is given to thousandths of an inch, with the units and
tens omitted. In Tables 4 and 19, all values are preceded by 29, except 000, which represents
30.000. The mercurial barometer (used daily to check the microbarograph) was calibrated
January 30, 1958 and found to be 0.020 inch too low. This value should be added to those shown
in the Tables. In addition, unreliability is introduced because the hourly values were read
from the microbarograph and because of the lag in this instrument. Allowing for this factor,
after 0.020 has been added to the values, the resulting values will all be correct within 0.020
(plus or minus) and half of the resulting values will be correct within 0.004.

ihe extreme error of 0.020 represents the maximum 10-minute change that may be expected
at Eniwetok, considering both the diurnal pressure curve and the changing synoptic situations.
(More rapid change might accompany approach of a typhoon or an intense tropical storm, but such
did not occur during these observational periods.) The ten minute period represents the
maximum time-lag between the mercurial barometer and the microbarograph at times when the
pressure is changing rapidly. (When it is changing very slowly the lag may be greater, but
then the error amplitude is diminished very appreciably.) The value 0.004 is based on the
assumption that rates of change of pressure over 5-10 minute periods are distributed normally
about their mean. Finally, it should be noted that these error estimates allow for the fact
that often in actual practice observers do not tap the microbarograph to permit the pen to
adjust to the current pressure.

TT and TT W were to be read to 0.1° F. according to standard instructions. It is evident,
however, from the very high frequency of values ending in .0 or .5 that the observers usually
read the temperature to the nearest graduated mark (.0 or .5). Allowing for this fact and for
an extreme instrumental error of 0.3°, all values are correct within 0.5* •

^This assumes there is no consistent bias, either instrumental or human, and that in
borderline cases the observer can discriminate to 0.1*.

39

RH is a calculated value based on TT and TT W . (P is an insignificant factor for our
purposes. ) It follows that for the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures experienced at Eniwetok
all RH values are correct within 6%, and 9 out of 10 are correct within U% (assuming normal
error distribution and allowing for 1% error in conversion).

N is probably too high, especially at night, in all instances in which it largely depends
on an observation of 10 Cs. An exception would be when 10 Cs was also observed at one of the
other stations (BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER or MACK). It is noted that lOCs was seldom reported at
these other Eniwetok locations and that at several widely scattered stations in the tropical
Pacific that take rawinsondes it has become customary to enter 10 Cs persistently on the
primary basis of presence of a moist layer high aloft and on a secondary basis of real or
imagined visual observations, including a slight diminution of starlight that can equally well
be attributed to the high moisture content of the lower air.

Cloud observations involving 10 Cs are not always reliable, as noted above. Low cloud
heights are probably correct within 200 feet during daylight because of the high frequency of
local air traffic. At night they are probably correct within 400 feet. Estimated middle cloud
heights are probably correct within 2000 feet. All cloud-height values are given in hundreds
of feet. Thus the entry M 18 M represents 1800 feet. Direction of cloud movement is to four
points of the compass.

DDFF is given to 16 points of the compass, with speed in knots for one-minute intervals.
Assuming no persistent bias, speeds are correct within 10$ and directions are correct within
1 point (plus or minus).

LL and T_T n were taken from the hourly values. For this reason, on afternoons with few
clouds the true T X T X may have been as much as 1° higher than those shown; while during the
nighttime and very early morning T n T n may have been as much as 1° lower than the values shown
whenever there were showers. (Lowest temperatures on tropical atolls are apt to occur momen-
tarily during showers, evidently because of overturning of the air combined with the effect of
evaporation.) This source of unreliability is additive to that for TT (above).

RR is accurate within 0.01 inch, assuming care was taken in the observations. In any
event, the representativeness of the catch is a factor that lowers the reliability decidedly
more than do any inaccuracies in measurement. ( See Table 34 and the notes therefor. These
make it clear that RR values in Table 4 are decidedly too low.)

TIMES OF RAINFALL are biased by one to a few minutes in that there was no recording gage
and the observer would seldom notice to the minute (especially at night) the exact time of
inception or termination of rain.

40

TABLE 5. FRED: RAWINSONDE OBSERVATIONS.

These Notes apply also to Table 20.

Date and Time refer to the 180th meridian. Where the time given is precisely 0000 or 1200
it represents the scheduled release time and may be in error by as much as 15 minutes. Other-
wise, it is almost certainly correct within 5 minutes.

Level is correct within 5 mb., except for the more accurate surface value, which is taken
from the station barometer ( see Notes for Table 4).

Height values are correct within 20 m. for levels between 850 and 600 mb. (inclusive);
within 30 m. between 500 and 300; within 50 m. at 200; and within 100 m. at 150 and 100 mb.
These inaccuracies are in addition to those associated solely with estimating the pressure
level ( see above).

TT is correct within 1* C. up to 300 mb. and within 2° above 300 mb., assuming no gross
instrument failure and no major error on the part of the observer.

RH is correct within 10$ and most values are correct within 5$, except when values are in
parentheses, when RH may be in error by as much as 20$.

DP is given to the nearest 10° and about 95$ of the values shown give the true value to
the nearest 10 # interval. The remaining 5$ are in error by a full 10 s step.3

^The values by 10° intervals are based on more accurate readings half of which may be in
error by 1° or more. The 5% figure is based on the assumption that the error distribution is
normal*

FF values are correct within 10-15$, the accuracy being greatest at lowest heights and
least at greatest heights.

NOTE : The above estimates of the reliability of the various observations are based on
considering both instrumental and observer errors, not including any consistent bias. Thus
such factors were considered as accuracy of elevation and azimuth angles (instrumental) and
the fact that in plotting there were inaccuracies introduced by the thickness of pencil lines.

TABLE 6. BRUCE: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS.

These Notes apply also to Tables 8, 21, and 2/*.

Date and Time refer to 180th meridian, and times given are correct within 5 minutes.
TT, TT , T X T X , and T n T n were all checked, one against the others, and minor adjustments
were made in some instances in accordance with the following rules. Direct reading dry- bulb and
wet-bulb temperatures were taken as being correct except in two instances (for all Tables

41

listed above), when a dry-bulb reading was obviously off by 5 degrees as indicated both by the
recording hygrothermograph and the extreme thermometers. Where direct comparison immediately
after re-setting showed consistently that a maximum or minimum thermometer differed from the
direct-reading thermometer, the maximum or minimum value was corrected accordingly. Thus the
minimum thermometer on KEITH during the first Intensive Phase was found to read 1° F. too low,
and was consistently corrected by this amount. Except where otherwise noted in the Tables, all
thermometers were read to the nearest half degree (values to the nearest .0 or .5). Since the
psychron thermometers are designed and manufactured to be correct within 0.3° F. and since
these were taken as being standard, the values are correct to within 0.5° F. ( see Notes,
Table 4).

RR values are correct within 0.01, not allowing for any sampling bias associated with
exposure. The authors believe that the gages were well exposed and that there was no appreci-
able sampling bias due to exposure. The user of these data can judge from Figures 13 and 14
and from information in the text whether or not he agrees with this conclusion.

N is given in tenths, and except where the value is followed by M ? N or is qualified by the
Remarks, is correct within 0.1. Thus 0.5, representing the observer* s best estimate, indicates
a real value lying between 0.4 and 0.6, inclusive. It should be noted that N at these stations
is often lower than N as observed at FRED because while FRED often reported lOCs, BRUCE and
KEITH seldom did so. Probably the FRED observation is in error in these instances ( see Notes
for Table 4).

^LMH -*- s a more or le ss accurate classification of cloud types and amounts, the accuracy
varying with the observer. Some of the observers were inexperienced, having been trained in
cloud observations only for a few hours prior to the start of the first observational period.
Others were skilled observers, with many years of experience as well as thorough training.
In general, the cloud identifications of the unskilled observers were nearly always correct
with reference to recognition of cumulus and cirrus (undifferentiated); but probably they
sometimes failed to recognize strato- cumulus, and particular types of cirrus and they probably
sometimes confused altocumulus and cirro-cumulus or alto-stratus and cirro-stratus. Therefore
in utilizing these observational data, reference should be made to the cloud photographs, to
observations made simultaneously from other islets (including FRED), and to the following
tabulation, which shows which observations in Table 6 were made by experienced observers.

Experienced observers made the observations at BRUCE during these intervals (all times
are inclusive): 1200 Aug 24 — 0900 Aug 25; 1200 Aug 26 — 0900 Aug 27; 1200 Aug 28 — 0900
Aug 29.

42

FFo gives mean windspeed in knots over the past three hours (since the time of last
observation). The value shown was computed from the dial readings and was rounded off to the
nearest whole knot. For a discussion of anemometer calibrations, see Notes for Table 3.

DDFF gives wind direction to 8 points of the compass and windspeed in descriptive terms
or in knots. Where descriptive terms or a range in knots is given, the windspeed was estimated
by the observer. Where a single windspeed value is given it represents speed to the nearest
knot as determined from the anemometer dial readings at the beginning and ending of one minute,
unless some other time interval is specified in the Table. Descriptive terms follow the
Beaufort phraseology. Estimated amounts (covering a range of speeds) are correct within 20$
of the extremes shown where estimates were made by experienced observers ( see above); other-
wise, they are judged to be correct within 40$.

Times of beginning and end of rain are biased in the direction of giving too late a time
in many instances. In this a distinction must be made between daytime and nighttime values.
Daytime values are probably correct within 5 minutes. Nighttime values may be in error by as
much as 30 minutes and there may well have been light showers that were not detected at night
since the observer was often asleep. (On behalf of the observer it must be stated that these
were 24- or 48- hour watches, with the observer alone on the islet.) Times of occurrence of
phenomena other than beginning or end of rain are probably correct within 5 minutes. Here also,
however, a distinction must be made between daytime and nighttime: There may well have been
special phenomena that were not detected at night, not only because of poor visibility but also
because the observer was in his tent asleep.

TABLE 7. BRUCE: SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS.

Date and Time refer to 180th meridian. Times are absolutely correct to within 5 minutes
(allowing for error in setting of observers watch) and are relatively correct (compared with
one another) within 1 minute.

TT and TT W were measured with a psychron, the instrument being held into the wind with the
bulb shielded. Temperatures were estimated to the nearest tenth of a degree F. and are correct
within 0.5° F.

Heights were estimated and are correct within 6 inches for the 5- and 3-foot heights and
within 3 inches for the one-foot height.

TT S was measured with an unshielded thermometer, graduated in half-degrees Centigrade.
Readings were estimated to the nearest tenth degree C. and were converted to the nearest tenth
degree F. The thermometer was held with the bulb continuously below the water surface, at a

43

depth of 3-6 inches. It is difficult to estimate what the accuracy of these observations was,
but assuming that the instrument was correct within 0.2° C, that the observer 1 s readings were
correct within 0.2° C, that neither of these possible sources of error was consistently biased,
and that both errors were distributed normally then 9 values out of 10 are correct within 0.3°
F. and all are correct within 0.7* F.

TABLE 8. KEITH: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS.

See Notes for Table 6.

Experienced observers made the cloud and other observations during the following intervals
(times are inclusive): 1200 Aug 18 ~ 0900 Aug 19; 1200 Aug 21 — 0900 Aug 23; 1200 Aug 26
— 0900 Aug 27; 1200 Aug 28 — 0900 Aug 29; 1200 Aug 30 — 0900 Aug 31.

TABLE 9. KEITH: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES.

This Note applies also to Tables 22 and 25.

The three-hourly values (0300, 0600, etc.) are based on direct dry-bulb and wet- bulb
readings (Table 8). The remaining values are taken from hygrothermograph charts, with adjust-
ments in absolute trace readings being made to fit the three-hourly values. The three-hourly
values are all correct within 6% and 9 out of 10 are correct within l& ( see Notes, Table A-).
For intermediate hourly values, these errors increase to 8$ and 5%» Further, at values in the
80s there is a small bias — about 1% — in the direction of giving values that are too low;
while in the 90s there is similar bias of about 2%,

Since the hygrothermograph was checked regularly (usually daily and at least every other
day) times are correct within 15 minutes.

TABLE 10. MACK: DAILY OBSERVATIONS.

This Note applies also to Table 26.

The Notes for Table 6 apply for all items except RR, DDFF, Sea, and Remarks. Cloud, wind,
sea, and other observations were made by experienced observers on all dates except August 26th
through 29th.

RR . Unavoidably, the raingage was not well exposed ( see General Notes and Figure 7).
Therefore readings may be in error by as much as 20#, with values probably tending to be too
low when the wind at time of rainfall was between NNW and NNE and too high when it was between
SSW and SSE.

kh

DDFF gives wind direction to 8 points and windspeed in knots. These are estimates only.
Where a range in knots is given, the values may be taken as being correct within 20$ of the
extremes when the observer was experienced or 40$ when he was not. Where a single speed
figure is given, the values may be taken as being correct within 30$ when the observer was
experienced or 60$ when he was not.

SEA conditions are described in the Remarks in instances in which there was any doubt as
to what standard code number to apply.

Remarks give dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings on Platforms #1, 2, and 3« Platform #1 is the
small, low platform at the southwest corner of FRED. Platform #2 is the large middle platform
on the northern side, which has upon it the small shelter house. Platform #3 is that on the
south side, on which the shelter and raingage were mounted. ( See Figure 7.) These platform
temperature observations were taken with a psychron at a height of 5 feet (plus or minus 6
inches) above the platform itself. The values are correct within 0.5° F.

TABLE 11. MACK: BI-H0URLY TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITIES.

This Note applies also to Table 27.

For humidity values, the direct once-a-day RH derived from direct dry-bulb and wet-bulb
readings were taken as being correct and the trace curve of the hygrothermograph was where
necessary adjusted accordingly. Similarly, the thermograph trace was adjusted where necessary
to fit the direct dry-bulb reading and also the maximum and minimum thermometer readings. In
both instances the necessary adjustments (both for the first and second Intensive Phase),
amounted to not more than 4$ for RH or 2° F. for dry-bulb temperature. Usually, they were less
than 2$ and 1°.

It is estimated that all RH values are correct within 8$ and that 9 out of 10 are correct
within 5$. There was no discernible bias in the RH chart values at MACK for values below 90$.
Above 90$, however, there appears to have been a bias of 1-2$, with the values being too low by
this amount and with the greater bias at the higher values.

It is estimated that bi-hourly temperatures are correct within 1.5° F. , an estimate based
on the closeness of agreement with direct reading temperatures and with maximum and minimum
thermometer readings. There is no evidence of bias in the thermograph trace.

Since the hygrothermograph was checked regularly (usually daily and at least every other
day), times are correct within 15 minutes.

45

TABLE 12. ELMER: DAILT OBSERVATIONS.

These Notes apply also to Table 28.

Time refers to 180th meridian and is correct within 5 minutes.

TT and TT W are given to the nearest 0.5° F. (.0 or .5) and are correct within 0.5".

T X T X and T n T n are correct within 1* F. They were read to the nearest 0.5* (.0 or .5).

RR is correct within 0.01 assuming a representative catch. For exposure see General Notes,
text, and Figure 8.

The Notes for Table 4 apply to N, C^m, and DDFF. Observations were by experienced
observers on all dates except August 27-29, inclusive.

TABLE 13. ELMER: BI-HOURLY TEMPERATURES.

Bi-hourly temperatures are taken from the hygrothermograph, with the trace adjusted to fit
the direct-reading (psychron) and maximum and minimum values. Values shown in the Table are all
correct within 2° F. and from the close agreement between direct readings and thermograph read-
ings it is estimated that 9 out of 10 values are correct within 1* F. The footnotes to the
Table give extreme values not obtainable within 1* by interpolation from the bi-hourly values.

Since the hygrothermograph chart was usually checked daily (and always at least every
other day) times are correct within 15 minutes.

TABLE 14. JANET: DAILY RAINFALL.

RR is accurate to 0.01 inch. Time is 180th meridian and is accurate to within 5 minutes.
Exposure excellent ( see General Notes).

TABLE 15. ELMER-MACK: LAGOON TRAVERSES.
ZONES are defined as follows:

ZONE 1 -- Within 500 yards of ELMER

ZONE 2 — Between 500 yards and 5 miles out from ELMER

(or, in two instances, from BRUCE)
ZONE 3 — Between 5 and 8 miles out from ELMER
ZONE 4 — Between 8 and 11 miles out from ELMER
ZONE 5 — Within 500 yards of MACK
Placement within zones is certain in every instance except the following: On August 26th,
the 1030 observation was near the boundary between Zones 3 and 4, and may have been a few
hundred yards within 3, rather than in 4 as given. The same is true with reference to the 1015
observation on August 28th. In all instances except when the traverse originated at BRUCE,

46

the M-boat stayed within a zone bordered on the northeast by a line paralleling the direct
ELMER-MACK track at a distance of 2 miles and bordered on the southwest by a line paralleling
the direct track at a distance of 1 mile*

Time . Absolute times are correct within 10 minutes. Time intervals (between successive
observations) are correct within 3 minutes, allowing for the fact that occasionally time was
entered at the start of the observations although usually it was entered immediately upon their
conclusion.

TT S is correct within 0.2* F. in instances in which it was read to the nearest tenth of a
degree and within 0.4 when read to the nearest half degree (.0 or .5). These estimates are
based on the fact that the thermometer specifications call for an accuracy of within 0.1 and on
the assumptions that this initial tolerance held and that the observer correctly read the
thermometer within 0.1.

TT and TT were read to the nearest half-degree (.0 or .5) and are correct within 0.5'
( see discussion under Notes, Table 4).

TABLE 16. BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER: LAGOON TRAVERSES.

Locations of the observations can be estimated by assuming straight-line courses between
the islets and by spacing the observation points along these lines with distances proportional
to elapsed times between observations. In most instances this will locate the observation
point correctly to within 700 yards and in all instances it will locate the point correctly to
within 1500 yards.

Times are absolutely correct within 10 minutes (180th meridian time) and differences
between successive times are correct within 1 minute.

Temperatures were measured with different types of thermometers at different times, and
the accuracy varied accordingly. Details are as follows:

August 20 . Both air and water temperatures were measured with a mercury- in-glass
thermometer, un jacketed, graduated in half -degrees C. and temperatures were estimated to 0.1* C.
Values were later converted to the nearest 0.1* F. for water temperatures and the nearest
0.5* F. for air temperatures. Assuming no bias or instrumental error beyond the initial
thermometer tolerance, TT g values are accurate within 0.4° F. and TT values, within 0.6* F.

August 23 . For all observations through that taken at 1420, the instrument, procedures,
and accuracies were the same as for August 20 (above). From 1430 onward, a metal jacketed
thermometer graduated in whole degrees F. was used. Using this thermometer, the observer
estimated TT S to the nearest 0.1° F. and TT to the nearest half-degree F. (.0 or .5). Since

47

this was a less reliable instrument than the centigrade thermometer, TT g is judged to be
accurate only within 0.5° F. and TT to be accurate only within 0.7 C F.

August 28 . TT g , TT> and TT W were all measured to the nearest half -degree F. (.0 or .5).
The Fahrenheit thermometer described immediately above was used to measure TT g , and the result-
ing observations are correct within 0.7* F. TT and TT W are correct within 0.5* F. ( see Notes,
Table 4).

August 31 . TT S , measured to tenths C. ( see August 20 . above), are accurate within 0.4* F.
TT and TT W> measured with a psychron to the nearest half-degree F., are accurate within 0.5 8 F.

TABLE 17. LAGOON-OCEAN: LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSES.

August 18 . TT 8 was obtained by canvas bucket-haul from a helicopter using the Centigrade
thermometer described in the Notes for Table 16, above. Readings were to the nearest 0.1* C.
Values given are correct within 0.4 8 F.

August 23 . TT was measured to the nearest half-degree F., using the F. thermometer

described under date of August 23 in Notes, Table 16, above. All values are accurate within
0.7° F. TT and TT W were measured to the closest half -degree F. (.0 or .5) using a psychron.
Values are accurate within 0.5° F. Locations in the ocean (outside) were all taken 500 to 1000
yards off the reef.

TABLE 18. ENIWETOK-BIKINI: BI-H0URLY OBSERVATIONS, MSTS - T-LST 618.

Time is correct within 5 minutes.

Positions while underway, as given in the log, may be assumed to be accurate within 2
nautical miles.

Ng is correct within one-eighth. E.g.: In extreme instances, an entry of n 4 n may in fact
have been 3/8 or 5/8.

DP is given to the nearest 10° , with the unit omitted. Thus 11 represents 110* . With
the ship underway, DD was estimated correctly to within 10°. With the ship docked, to within
8*, Thus in both instances a minority of the observations may fall in the wrong 10* category
(plus or minus).

FF is given to the nearest knot. With the ship underway, FF was estimated correctly to
within 5 knots (plus or minus). With the ship docked, to within 3 knots. Windspeeds (and
directions) were estimated primarily on the basis of the effect of wind upon the water, follow-
ing the Beaufort scale and then estimating knots within the Beaufort interval.

48

WX is given in code, following the U. S. Dept. of Commerce Weather Bureau Ship Code Card
(TA 631-0-2), dtd. January 1, 1955* Quoting from this source, the code values given are to be
interpreted as follows:

01 : No hydrometeors except clouds. Clouds generally dissolving or becoming less developed
during the past hour.

02 : No hydrometeors except clouds. State of sky on the whole unchanged during the past
hour.

03 : No hydrometeors except clouds. Clouds generally forming or developing during the
past hour.

15 : Precipitation within sight, reaching sea, but distant ((i.e., estimated to be more
than 5 km. (3 miles) from ship)).

16 : Precipitation within sight, reaching sea, near to but not at the ship.

18: Squall(s).

60 : Rain, not freezing, intermittent - slight at time of observation.

80: Rain shower(s), slight.

81 : Rain shower(s), moderate or heavy.

P shows air pressure in tenths and hundredths of inches, so that the values given in the
Table should be preceded by 29. Values given are correct within 0.05 inch.

TT and TT W are correct within 1° F.

Ct amounts are correct within one-eighth. Height estimates are judged to be correct within
500 feet. Codes, as taken from the U. S. Dept. of Commerce Weather Bureau Ship Code Card
(TA 631-0-2), dtd. January 1, 1955, have the following meanings:

2: Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical development generally with protuberances in the
form of domes or towers, either accompanied or not by other cumulus or by stratocumulus; *n
having their bases at the same level.

3_: Cumulonimbus the summits of which, at least partially, lack sharp outlines, but are
neither clearly fibrous, neither cirriform nor in the form of an anvil; cumulus, stratocumulus
or stratus may be present.

2: Fractostratus of bad weather or fractocumulus of bad weather or both; usually below
altostratus or nimbostratus.

Cy and Cj, code entries have meanings as follows (from the source cited immediately above):

C^: 1: Altostratus, the greater part of which is semi transparent ; through this part the
sun or moon may be weakly visible as through ground glass.

49

Cj,: 4: Patches of semi transparent altocumulus (often in the shape of almonds or fishes)
at one or more levels; cloud elements continuously changing in aspect.

j>: Semitransparent altocumulus in bands or altocumulus in one more or less continu-
ous layer progressively invading the sky, generally thickening as a whole; the layer may be
opaque or double with a second sheet.

6: Altocumulus formed by the spreading out of cumulus.

2: Any one of the following cases: (a) Altocumulus in two or more layers usually
opaque in places and not progressively invading the sky; (b) Opaque layer of altocumulus not
progressively invading the sky; (c) Altocumulus coexisting with altostratus or nimbostratus
or both.

2$ Altocumulus, generally at several layers in a chaotic sky; dense cirrus is
usually present.

Cj,: 1: Cirrus in the form of filaments, strands or hooks, not progressively invading
the sky (often called "mares tails").

2: Dense cirrus in patches or entangled sheaves usually not increasing and possibly
the remains of the upper parts of cumulonimbus; or cirrus with sproutings in the form of
towers or battlements or having the aspect of cumuliform tufts.

2: Cirrus, often in the form of an anvil; either the remains of the upper parts of
cumulonimbus, or parts of distant cumulonimbus, the cumuliform portions of which cannot be seen.

8: Cirrostratus not progressively invading the sky, and not completely covering it.

2i Cirrocumulus alone, or cirrocumulus accompanied by cirrus or cirrostratus or both,
but cirrocumulus is the predominant cirriform cloud.

DP for waves is given to 10°, with the unit omitted from the entries. Thus 08 represents
80°. Directions are correct to plus or minus 10° •

Period of waves is given in seconds and is correct within one second.
Height of waves is given in feet and is correct within 50$ (plus or minus).

50

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59

PLACE: FRED RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

AUGUST 18 -

- SEPTEMBER

1, 1957

TABLE 5

DATE TIME LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

U.)

(°c)

Cc)

(Vs)

8/18 OOOO 1008

Surface

28.5

23.4

74

60 -

2

1000

75

28.1

M

M

60 -

2

850

1492

17.6

15.6

88

100 -

2

700

3137

10.4

-1.3

44

110 -

3

600

4405

2.8

-1.6

79

100 -

7

500

5860

-6.0

-9.8

74

110 -

8

400

7576

-15.7

-25.2

44

110 -

5

300

9680

-30.6

ME

(20)

210 -

6

200

12414

-55.0

—

310 -

2

150

14188

-67.9

—

240 -

3

100

16554

-75.8

—

190 -

6

1200 1009

Surface

27.5

26.1

92

130 -

5

1000

85

27.3

25.8

92

130 -

5

850

1506

18.8

13.0

69

130 -

6

700

3147

10.0

2.6

60

110 -

6

600

4413

2.9

-3.9

61

100 -

6

500

5867

-5.3

-13.6

52

90 -

6

400

7586

-16.4

-29.2

32

80 -

4

300

9684

-31.6

ME

(20)

290 -

5

200

12413

-53.3

—

220 -

7

150

14206

-66.4

—

230 -

16

100

16577

-78.2

— — —

—

260 -

10

8/19 0000 1010

Surface

28.0

21.8

69

80 -

2

1000

94

27.2

21.7

72

90 -

3

850

1510

17.8

13.6

76

100 -

5

700

3150

9.4

3.8

68

90 -

9

600

4412

1.9

-2.8

71

90 -

7

500

5862

-6.5

-12.4

63

90 -

10

400

7574

-16.5

-29.3

32

130 -

5

300

9672

-31.8

ME

(20)

200 -

5

200

12409

-57.2

—

250 -

11

150

14196

-67.9

—

230 -

24

100

16543

-79.3

—

260 -

11

1200 1009

Surface

28.0

22.1

70

80 -

5

1000

85

27.6

22.8

75

90 -

5

850

1497

18.0

13.4

74

90 -

7

700

3138

10.4

-8.2

26

90 -

10

600

4406

3.3

-12.8

30

90 -

10

500

5862

-6.0

-15.6

47

100 -

8

400

7574

-16.8

-30.2

30

110 -

5

300

9672

-31.3

MB

(20)

190 -

7

200

12397

-55.0

—

210 -

6

150

14177

-68.5

—

220 -

19

100

16517

-79.3

—

270 -

8

8/20 0000 1009

Surface

27.4

22.6

75

80 -

5

1000

85

27.1

22.8

77

80 -

6

850

1499

17.7

7.7

52

70 -

8

700

3138

10.2

-6.5

30

80 -

13 !

600

4409

3.8

-14.9

24

100 -

10

500

5863

-6.1

-16.7

43

80 -

7

400

7582

-15.7

-22.5

32

110 -

5

300

9685

-31.5

-42.2

34

180 -

5

200

12414

-54.8

—

220 -

6

150

14196

-66.9

—

250 -

16

100

16542

-83.3

250 -

14

60

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

AUGUST It

J - SEPTEMBER

1, 1957

TABLE 5

(Continued)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(nu)

Cc)

Cc)

(V»)

8/20

1200

1010

Surface

27.5

22.5

74

90 -

8

1000

94

26.8

M

M

90 -

8

850

1507

17.8

14.1

79

100 -

7

700

3153

10.9

-3.2

37

120 -

6

600

4423

4.1

-11.9

30

130 -

6

500

5884

-4.9

-18.7

33

130 -

7

400

7609

-14.2

M

M

80 -

5

300

9721

-30.2

M

M

120 -

9

200

12467

-53.1

—

100 -

7

150

14266

-66.1

—

60 -

8

100

16630

-78.4

—

70 -

10

8/21

0000

1010

Surface

28.5

23.9

76

80 -

4

1000

94

28.4

24.4

79

80 -

5

850

1519

18.1

16.3

89

110 -

7

700

3160

9.8

7.6

86

100 -

11

600

4427

2.9

-1.0

75

100 -

11

500

5884

-4.8

-11.6

59

100 -

10

400

7603

-15.6

MB

(17)

80 -

7

300

9707

-30.5

MB

(20)

90 -

2

200

12447

-54.1

—

270 -

7

150

14231

-67.9

—

280 -

12

100

16575

-81.0

—

350 -

6

1200

1010

Surface

27.5

22.3

73

120 -

8

1000

93

26.5

M

M

170 -

6

850

1510

19.0

14.1

73

160 -

3

700

3158

11.0

3.1

58

120 -

3

600

4427

3.1

-5.8

52

120 -

8

500

5886

-4.9

-14.0

49

120 -

8

400

7605

-16.2

-24.2

50

120 -

6

300

9707

-31.4

-36.2

63

120 -

9

200

12436

-54.7

—

290 -

6

150

14215

-69.0

—

290 -

12

100

16583

-75.1

— — — —

—

80 -

7

8/22

0000

1010

Surface

27.0

22.9

78

180 -

5

1000

94

26.9

22.7

78

185 -

4

850

1510

17.9

14.6

81

140 -

3

700

3149

8.6

5.1

79

105 -

6

600

4409

0.8

-2.9

81

100 -

6

500

5853

-7.5

-12.8

66

90 -

7

400

7565

-16.7

-21.8

64

90 -

7

300

9668

-30.9

MB

(20)

50 -

7

200

12402

-54.7

—

50 -

7

150

14191

-69.8

—

360 -

10

100

16512

-77.3

—

260 -

11

1200

1009

Surface

27.1

21.6

72

30 -

7

1000

84

26.1

21.6

76

40 -

5

850

1500

18.9

15.8

82

80 -

2

700

3U2

9.8

5.0

72

10 -

2

600

4403

1.9

-0.9

90

340 -

3

500

5856

-6.3

-9.0

81

30 -

9

400

7575

-15.7

-20.3

68

10 -

7

300

9677

-31.8

-40.5

42

90 -

6

200

12409

-54.0

—

340 -

6

150

14194

-67.0

—

350 -

17

100

16565

-77.3

—

210 -

5

61

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS

, AUGUST It

5 - SJSri'lSMBEi

1 1, 1957

(Continued)

DATE TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

Vd

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

(°c)

Cc)

(Vs)

8/23 0000

1009

Surface

27.5

22.9

76

60-5

1000

85

27.2

22.6

76

60-5

850

1501

17.8

14.6

82

70-9

700

3140

8.6

5.0

78

230 - 6

600

4399

1.2

-0.6

88

190 - 4

500

5851

-5.4

-7.4

86

130 - 3

400

7570

-15.8

-21.4

62

120-3

300

9668

-31.9

-39.9

45

180-4

200

12399

-55.0

—

330 - 3

150

14178

-68.3

—

300-5

100

16534

-76.8

— --

--

270 - 3

1200

1007

Surface

28.5

23.0

72

70-7

1000

68

27.9

M

M

70-7

850

1484

19.2

13.4

69

100-11

700

3131

10.7

5.4

69

100-5

600

4401

3.6

-0.9

72

160 - 7

500

5860

-4.9

-10.6

64

180 - 10

400

7502

-15.6

-22.4

56

220 - 9

300

9684

-30.4

-39.7

40

240 - 6

200

12420

-53.7

—

230 - 9

150

14207

-67.2

—

260 - 3

100

16584

-77.1

— —

— —

100-4

8/24 0000

1009

Surface

29.0

24.8

78

140-6

1000

85

28.6

24.6

79

140-6

850

1503

17.0

13.2

79

160 - 10

700

3139

9.1

3.8

69

140 - 10

600

4398

1.7

-3.4

70

150 - 8

500

5850

-5.2

-15.9

43

180-9

400

7562

-16.1

-28.3

34

120 - 10

300

9655

-31.9

-38.9

50

220 - 6

200

12377

-56.0

--

240-4

150

14139

-70.5

—

260 - 8

100

16476

-81.5

—

200 - 10

1200

1010

Surface

27.5

21.6

70

170 - 3

1000

94

26.8

M

M

150 - 3

850

1509

18.1

11.8

67

130 - 4

700

3149

9.1

3.1

66

150 - 5

600

4416

2.2

-2.9

69

120-8

500

5869

-5.2

-17.0

39

130 - 8

400

7589

-15.7

-25.2

44

130 - 10

300

9693

-30.1

-40.5

36

140-4

200

12444

-52.7

—

10 -5

150

14234

-68.2

—

340 - 6

100

16608

-79.0

— —

— ~

120-5

8/25 0000

1010

Surface

28.5

23.4

74

90-6

1000

94

28.2

23.1

74

90-6

850

1518

19.4

12.6

65

80-4

700

3170

12.1

-5.0

30

90-7

600

4442

3.3

-5.2

54

90-7

500

5898

-5.7

-17.2

40

80-8

400

7618

-15.5

-29.4

29

110 - 6

300

9719

-30.8

MB

(20)

90-4

200

12468

-53.4

—

90-2

150

14253

-68.3

—

140-1

100

16605

-80.£

—

270 - 5

62

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE 1

OBSERVATION

S, AUGUST 18

t - SEPTEMBER

1, 1957

TAELE 5
(Continued)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

JdTd

(°c)

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

(°c)

(Vs)

8/25

1200

1010

Surface

28.0

20.5

64

100-3

1000

94

27.8

20.0

64

100-3

850

1514

18.4

9.4

56

100-5

700

3154

9.7

5.1

73

110 - 9

600

4419

2.8

-4.2

60

90 - 10

500

5875

-5.0

-17.4

37

80-9

400

7596

-14.1

MB

(16)

60-9

300

9702

-31.0

MB

(20)

40-7

200

12444

-52.8

—

20-6

150

14235

-68.0

—

270 - 10

100

16576

-78.0

— —

40-12

8/26

0000

1009

Surface

28.0

22.0

72

30-2

1000

85

27.0

22.0

74

30-3

850

1502

19.0

17.0

88

90-3

700

3153

12.0

6.1

67

90-4

600

4425

3.5

-0.2

77

90-3

500

5883

-5.0

-16.3

41

90-3

400

7600

-16.6

-19.6

78

70-4

300

9702

-30.1

-37.2

50

70-8

200

12445

-53.7

—

10-8

150

14226

-68.9

—

340 - 9

100

16574

-77.6

—

70-8

1200

1008

Surface

27.0

19.0

62

110 - 3

1000

75

26.7

19.3

69

90-3

850

1490

17.6

13.9

79

110 - 6

700

3128

2.7

-2.8

66

100-5

600

4387

0.9

-3.5

72

120-7

500

5833

-6.5

-7.3

M

M - M

400

7545

-16.2

-32.0

24

M - M

300

9646

-31.5

MB

(20)

M - M

200

12384

-53.7

—

M - M

150

14167

-69.0

—

M - M

100

16493

-78.5

— — — —

— —

M - M

8/27

0000

1009

Surface

27.0

21.6

72

100-5

1000

84

26.5

21.7

75

100-5

850

1497

17.4

13.9

80

100-8

700

3132

8.9

3.6

69

100-6

600

4392

1.3

-3.3

72

90-7

500

5843

-5.1

-19.6

31

140 - 4

400

7558

-16.2

-25.6

44

90-2

300

9653

-31.5

-40.0

43

30-4

200

12378

-54.1

—

360 - 12

150

14154

-69.3

—

350 - 14

100

16473

-79.5

—

10-7

1200

1008

Surface

27.0

25.6

92

110-7

1000

76

26.6

M

M

110 - 8

850

I486

19.3

M

M

140-2

700

3124

9.0

M

M

130 - 7

600

4384

2.1

M

M

130 - 7

500

5837

-7.3

M

M

110-2

400

7540

-17.3

M

M

30 - 5

300

9637

-31.1

M

M

10 - 5

200

12379

-54.2

—

330 - 15

150

14161

-68.9

—

10-9

100

16513

-76.3

—

30-7

63

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

AUGUST 18 -

- SEPTEMBER

1, 1957

TABLE 5
(Continued)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

Cc)

Cc)

(m/s)

8/28

0000

1009

Surface

28.7

22.8

70

120-5

1000

85

27.9

23.1

75

120-5

850

1501

17.9

14.9

83

150 - 4

700

3141

8.8

-1.3

49

160 - 5

600

4400

1.1

-3.3

72

160 - 6

500

5848

-6.2

-14.2

53

130 - 7

400

7563

-16.9

-26.8

42

80-8

300

9656

-32.6

-37.6

61

30-8

200

12380

-55.2

—

10-8

150

14154

-69.0

—

360 - 21

ICO

16504

-74.0

—

20-2

1200

1010

Surface

28.0

22.1

70

180-3

1000

94

27.2

22.1

74

170 - 3

850

1517

18.8

15.0

78

170 - 3

700

3761

9.7

2.8

62

150 - 5

600

4424

1.8

-2.4

73

160 - 6

500

5875

-6.2

-20.2

32

150 - 7

400

7589

-16.5

-22.6

59

120 - 6

300

9686

-31.3

-37.2

56

100 - 11

200

12425

-54.0

—

40 - 16

150

14204

-69.4

—

30 - 18

100

16566

-74.1

—

30-5

8/29

0000

1010

Surface

27.5

21.8

71

70-6

1000

94

27.0

22.5

76

70-6

850

1510

18.8

13.9

73

70 - 5

700

3155

10.0

4.7

69

100-2

600

4423

2.9

-5.7

53

110 - 2

500

5876

-6.2

-11.8

64

180 - 2

400

7587

-17.0

-23.4

57

200 - 5

300

9686

-30.8

-35.3

65

110 - 11

200

12424

-55.4

--

60-14

150

14192

-70.1

—

20-14

100

16555

-76.8

—

90-9

1200

1010

Surface

28.5

23.0

72

100-4

1000

94

27.8

22.8

74

90-5

850

1516

19.3

13.5

69

80-5

700

3166

10.6

2.5

57

70-4

600

4430

2.1

-3.8

65

90-2

500

5898

-6.2

-11.9

64

50-2

400

7593

-15.4

-28.1

33

360 - 3

300

9699

-30.4

-41.0

35

90-4

200

12447

-53.2

—

60 - 8

150

14236

-67.5

—

110-6

100

16605

-76.0

— — — —

—

340 - 4

8/30

0000

1009

Surface

28.0

23.6

77

60-8

1000

85

27.6

23.7

79

60-8

850

1509

18.8

14.7

77

60 - 10

700

3153

9.3

6.6

83

60-7

600

4421

2.9

-1.3

74

50-2

500

5874

-6.0

-10.9

68

350 - 2

400

7593

-15.5

-23.7

52

20-5

300

9696

-31.1

MB

(20)

20-2

200

12428

-54.3

—

40-3

150

14210

-68.6

—

200-9

100

16567

-78.4

—

80-8

64

PLACE: FRED

KAWlNSONUil

UB5JSKVAT1UNS

, AUUUiJT IH

- SiM'J.JSMtUSt

t 1, 1957

(Concluded)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(»u)

Cc)

Cc)

(m/s)

8/30

1200

1008

Surface

27.5

23.7

80

100-4

1000

76

27.1

23.8

82

100-4

850

1498

18.3

12.5

70

110 - 6

700

3140

10.2

2.7

60

110 - 9

600

4406

2.4

-5.9

54

100-8

.

500

5859

-4.8

-12.6

54

160 - 2

400

7582

-15.4

-20.3

65

310 - 3

300

9690

-31.0

MB

(20)

290 - 7

200

12423

-53.5

—

220 - 10

150

14216

-66.1

—

240 - 6

100

16593

-79.5

—

— —

70-5

8/31

0000

1008

Surface

28.0

23.4

76

60-6

1000

76

27.2

22.8

77

70-6

850

1496

18.6

16.2

86

80-3

700

3142

10.7

3.4

61

80-3

600

4413

2.9

-2.0

70

80-8

500

5870

-5.8

-10.3

70

90-3

400

7584

-16.5

-22.5

60

150 - 3

300

9679

-31.9

-41.5

38

90-7

200

12409

-53.8

—

190 - 11

150

14192

-68.0

—

190 - 14

100

16565

-77.4

—

30-3

1200

1007

Surface

28.6

23.1

72

80-6

1000

68

28.0

22.8

73

90-7

850

1494

19.6

15.6

78

90-7

700

3146

11.1

2.4

59

90-7

600

4417

3.1

-1.8

72

110 - 6

500

5873

-5.8

-9.2

77

120-6

400

7594

-15.6

-21.9

58

180 - 6

300

9698

-31.6

-38.2

52

180 - 10

200

12434

-53.8

—

180 - 15

150

14231

-66.1

—

190 - 15

100

16608

-75.0

— —

— —

110 - 10

9/1

0000

1008

Surface

26.5

21.9

76

100-7

1000

75

25.8

21.6

78

110 - 7

850

1500

19.1

17.6

91

120-9

700

3148

10.6

4.7

67

90-9

600

4415

2.8

-5.2

56

100 - 10

500

5817

-5.2

-13.9

50

100-8

400

7592

-14.8

-28.4

30

110 - 8

300

9691

-31.3

MB

(20)

130 - 9

200

12426

-52.7

—

180 - 12

150

14215

-67.7

—

180 - 12

100

16568

-82.4

— —

--

130 - 6

1300

1009

Surface

27.6

22.4

73

130 - 5

1000

85

27.6

22.6

74

130 - 6

850

1510

19.4

15.5

78

150 - 6

700

3157

10.1

4.7

69

120 - 10

600

4426

3.8

-4.7

54

110 - 10

500

5889

-3.9

-10.7

59

100 - 13

400

7620

-14.9

-20.7

61

110 - 9

300

9731

-29.8

-36.5

52

170 - 5

200

12485

-52.3

—

110 - 5

150

14294

-66.3

—

90-6

100

16635

-81.3

—

90-11

65

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74

PLACE: MACK
DATE TIME TT

TT.

DAILY OBSERVATIONS, AUGUST 18 - 31, 1957
RR N C T

T T
^x

T T
n n

LMH

DDFF

TABLE 10

SEA
(Code)

8/18
8/19
8/20
8/21
8/22
8/23
8/24
8/25
8/26
8/27
8/28
8/29
8/30
8/31

1240
1225
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1155
1200
1200
1130
1200
1150
1145

85.0
84.5
83.5
82.5
83.0
83.0
81.5
84.0
85.0
84.0
85.0
85.5
84.0
84.5

76.5
78.0
76.0
77.5
75.5
78.5
76.0
76.0
78.5
78.0
79.0
79.0
78.0
78.5

86.0

86.0
85.0
84.0
85.0
85.0
86.0
88.0
85.0
84.0
85.0
85.0
87.0

79.0
81.5
82.0
77.5
79.0
80.5
77.0
82.0
78.0
78.5
82.0
81.5
78.0
77.5

0.02

0.11
0.13
0.21
0.27

0.09
0.24

0.05
0.04

3
4
4
8
9
8
7
8
7
6
10
4
4
7

3Cu

4Cu

4Cu;Ci...

2Cu;Ac;Ci

2Cu;Ac;Ci

2Sc;3Ac;7Ci

4Cu;2Ac;6Ci

2Cu;4Ac;8Ci

4Cu;3Ac.

5Cu;lAc.

3Cu;10As

4Cu

3Cu;2Ac;3Ci
3Cu;3Ac;4Ci

S Light
E 6-8
E 6-8
SE 12-15
NE 8-10
NE 10-13
E 6-8
E 3-4
SE 4
SE 15

NE 10-12
NE 3-4
E 10-12

2

1

2

1

1

REMARKS AND TOWER READINGS

8/22
8/23
8/24

8/25

8/26
8/27

8/28
8/29
8/30
8/31

Several shwrs. in sight over lagoon and islets; heavy shwr. £ mile N of

Platform #2 1225: TT-81.0; TT w -76.5.

TT w -77.0.

Towering Cu to S.

Cb to SW.

Light rain shwr.

MACK. TOWER: Platform #1 1220: TT-82.0;
Platform #3 (on ladder at level of top) 1230: "TT-81.0;

Swelling cumulus on horizon along NE quadrant. TOWER: Platform #1 L207: TT-84.0; TT
76.0. Platform #2 1210: TT-83.0; TT -75.0. Platform #3 1215: TT-82.5; TT w -75«5. Top
1213: TT-82.5; TT -75.5. (Platform #3 and Top are at same level; #3 was read on ladder
at level of top; Top was read standing on top platform facing windward.)

Gentle swells, surface wind ripples. Heavy rain shwr. N of MACK; commenced 1230 and

TT w -76.5.

TT w -78.0.

Platform #2: TT-82.0;

TT W -

observed until after 1300. TOWER: Platform #1: TT-83.0;

TT w -77.0. Platform #3: TT-82.0; TT w -77.0.
Moderate swells with white caps. Cloud conditions changed rapidly to following by 1230

N 10; 3Cu;7Ci. TOWER: Platform #1: TT-82.0; TTw-78.0. Platform #2: TT- 81. 5;

77.5. Platform #3: TT-81.5; TTw-76.5. At Shelter 1132: TT83.0; TT w -77.5.
Hazy sun. TOWER: Platform #1 1115: TT-85.0; TT w -78.0. Platform #2 1120: TT-84.0; TT^

77.5. Platform #3 1125: TT-83.5;
TOWER: Platform #1: TT-85.5; TT W

(missing).
TOWER: Platform #1 1157: TT-83.O; TT w -77.5. Platform #2 1200:

Platform #3 1203: TT-82.2; TT w -77.5» Top (Windward side) 1204
Sea: code "1" plus. TOWER: Platform #1 1201: TT-84.0; TT w -78.0. Platform #2"l203:

TT-83.5; TT w -78.0. Platform #3 1205: TT-84.O; TT -78.5. (poor exposure top shelter

obstructing wind flow). Top (Windward side) 1208: TT-83.0; TT w -79.0.

TT w -77.0.

79.0. Platform #2: TT-85.0;

TT w -79.0.

Platform #3:

TT-82.5; TT w -77.5.
TT-82.0;

TT w -77.5.

75

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76

PLACE:

ELMER

DATE

TIME

8/18

0900

8/19

0915

8/20

0900

8/21

0900

8/22

0900

8/23

0900

8/24

0900

8/25

0908

8/26

0900

8/27

0900

8/28

0850

8/29

0905

8/30

0905

8/31

0910

9/1

1015

8/22

0900

8/23

0900

8/24

0900

8/25

0908

8/26

0900

8/27

0900

8/30

0905

9/1

1015

DAILY OBSERVATIONS, AUGUST 18 - SEPTEMBER 1, 1957 TABLE 12

TT TT W T X T X T n T n RR N Clmh DDFF

85.5 78.5 91.0 78.0 3 2Cu;lCi E 5-10

85.5 79.0 93.0 84.0 0.02 2 2Cu E 5-10

84.5 76.0 90.0 81.5 3 lCu;2Ci E 8-10

83.0 77.0 89.0 76.5 0.52 10 3Cu;Ac;Cs S 4-6

81.5 77.5 88.0 80.0 0.14 10 9Cu,Sc;(Ac);(Ci) N Very Lt.

81.0 78.5 88.0 77.0 0.19 8 5Cu;3Ac;4Ci.... NE 8-10

85.5 80.0 89.0 76.5 0.09 8 4Cu;2Ac;8Ci.... SE 4-6

85.0 78.0 89.0 81.0 9 2Cu;lAc;9Ci&Cs. E 3-5

82.0 78.5 90.0 82.0 0.18 9 6Cu;2Ac;2Ci.... Lt. Variable

80.5 77.5 90.0 76.0 0.08 10 6Sc;4Cu E 10-12

85.0 77.5 88.5 80.0 T 10 2Cu;8Cs&Ci SE 2-4

86.0 84.5 87.5 83.5 0.01 2 2Cu NE 0-5

82.5 78.0 90.5 80.0 0.13 8 5Cu;2Ac;5Ci.... NE 3-6

84.0 79.0 0.13 6 3Cu;4Ac;4Ci.... E 8-10

84.0 81.0 88.0 77.5 0.20 8 3Cu;4Ac;7Ci.... E 6-8

REMARKS
Rain.

Shwrs. to the north.

Shwrs. in sight. Swelling cumulus over the lagoon to the NW.
Swelling cumulus far distant to the NE.

Towering cumulus in all quadrants. Shwr. from 0852 to 0905.
Shwr. from 0904 to 0912.
Shwrs. in sight in all quadrants.
Towering cumulus in the north quadrant.

77

8

CM

OOCOCMHHHOOr-IOCo

cocococococococococococo

CM

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SOHHCMrHHOOHOH
COCOCOCOCOCOCOCoCOCOCO

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CMHCMHCM<*HrHOO°CM

cocoeococococoeococococo

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r\ ia \0 -4-r^vO o ir\ v\
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78

PLACE: JANET

TABLE 14

DAILY RAINFALL, AUGUST 19 - 31, 1957

DATE

TIME

RR

REMARKS

8/19

0915

0.50

8/20

0915

8/21

0915

0.22

8/22

0915

0.13

8/23

0915

0.10

8/24

0945

0.19

8/25

■H-

8/26

0945

0.11

8/27

0945

0.81

8/28

0915

8/29

0915

8/30

0915

0.15

8/31

0915

0.01

Total since 0915, 8/17/57.

* Amount included in total for
next day.

79

I

DATE
8/18

8/19

8/20

8/21

EIMER

-MACK

LAGOON TRAVERSES,

AUGUST 18 - 31. 1957 TABLE

15

ZONE

TIME
1128

TT S

TIME

TT

TT

REMARKS

Departed ELMER.

1

1132

84.0*

1137

87.0

78.5

300 yards off ELMER.

2

1150

84.5*

1155

88.0

79.5

Off buoy.

3

1210

84.5*

1215

88.0

79.0

4

1230

85.0*

1233

87.0

79.0

5

1243
1247

1410

84.5*

100 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1415

85.5*

1420

84.0

78.0

100 feet west of MACK.

4

1435

84.5*

IV, o

83.5

78.0

2

1455

84.5*

1502

83.0

77.5

1

1525
1530

1057

84.0*

300 yards off ELMER.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1101

84.0*

1105

84.0

79.0

300 yards off ELMER.

2

1121

84.0*

1125

83.5

78.5

Off buoy.

3

1141

84.5*

1145

83.5

79.0

4

1201

84.5*

1205

83.5

78.5

5

1218
1222

1300

84.5*

150 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1303

84.5*

1308

85.5

78.5

45 feet west of MACK.

4

1325

84.5*

1328

84.5

79.0

3

1345

84.5*

1350

84.5

78.5

2

1405

84.0*

1410

84.5

78.5

1

1432
1440

1016

84.0*

300 yards off ELMER.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1019

83.5*

1024

83.5

77.5

300 yards off ELMER.

2

1039

83.5*

1044

83.5

77.0

Buoy to starboard.

3

1059

84.0*

1104

85.0

77.0

4

1119

84.0*

1123

84.5

77.5

5

1135
1142

1220

84.0*

300 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK

5

1225

84.5*

50 feet west of MACK.

4

1245

84.0*

1250

84.5

78.0

3

1305

84.0*

1310

84.5

78.0

2

1325

84.0*

1330

84.5

77.5

Off buoy.

1

1347
1350

1019

83.5*

300 yards off ELMER.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1021

83.5*

1025

84.5

79.0

At green water.

2

1041

83.5*

1043

83.5

78.0

Obstruction buoy "A" to port.

3

1059

84.0*

1102

83.5

78.5

Black buoy M ll" nearby.

4

1117

84.0*

1118

83.5

78.5

OSCAR off starboard bow.

5

1133

84.0*

1134

83.0

78.5

300 yards off MACK.

5

1136
1148

1220

84.0*

200 feet off MACK.

Arrived MACK. M-boat had to lay off tower
because of sea condition.

Departed MACK.

5

1225

84.0*

1226

83.5

78.5

200 feet off MACK.

4

1241

84.0*

1244

83.5

77.5

OSCAR off port bow.

3

1305

84.0*

1306

82.5

77.5

Black buoy to starboard.

2

1337

84.0*

1338

82.0

77.0

2

1350

84.0*

1352

82.5

78.0

Red lighted buoy to starboard.

80

PLACE:

ELMER

-MACK

LAGO

ON TRAV

ERSES,

AUGUST 18 - 31. 1957 TABLE 15

(Continued)

DATE

ZONE

TIME

TT S

TIME

TT

TT W

REMARKS

8/21

1

1406
1410

83. 5*

At green water.
Arrived ELMER.

8/22

1005

Departed ELMER.

1

1007

83.5

1009

81.5

78.0

Rain shwrs between 1015 and 1100.

2

1025

83.7

1027

80.5

78.0

"A" buoy to port.

3

1043

83.7

1046

80.0

77.5

Buoy to port.

4

1100

83.8

1102

80.5

77.5

4

1118

84.0

1121

81.0

77.5

1,500 yards off MACK.

5

1123
1125

1245

84.0

150 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1246

84.5

1248

83.0

77.5

50 feet off MACK.

4

1304

84.3

1307

84.0

78.5

3

1323

84.2

1325

84.0

78.5

Black buoy to port.

2

1342

84.3

1344

84.0

78.5

2

1356

84.0

1359

83.5

77.5

8/23

1

1404
1406

1020

84.0

At green water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1023

83.5

1025

82.0

78.5

At green water.

2

1040

83.8

1044

82.0

78.5

Buoy "A" to port.

3

1058

83.7

1101

82.5

79.0

Black tuay "11" to port.

4

1116

84.0

1119

83.0

78.5

OSCAR off the starboard bow.

4

1131

84.0

1134

83.0

79.5

OSCAR off the starboard quarter.

5

1138
1140

1240

84.0

150 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1240

84.3

1242

83.5

78.5

50 feet off MACK.

4

1258

84.0

1300

83.5

78.5

OSCAR off the port quarter.

3

1317

84.0

1319

83.5

78.5

Between a black and a red buoy.

2

1335

84.0

1338

83.0

79.0

Buoy "A" to port.

2

1350

83.5

1353

84.5

79.0

Buoy "8" to starboard.

1

1400
1405

83.8

At green water
Arrived ELMER.

8/24

1020

Departed ELMER.

1

1025

84.0

1030

84.5

78.5

500 yards off ELMER.

2

1043

84.0

1050

86.5

78.5

Black buoy on starboard beam.

3

1104

84.0

1109

83.0

78.5

Red lighted buoy on starboard quarter.

4

1125

84.0

1130

83.0

78.5

OSCAR on starboard beam.

5

1136
1138

1235

84.0

300 feet off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1236

84.8

1045

83.5

77.5

150 feet off MACK.

4

1256

85.2

1303

83.0

78.0

OSCAR on the port quarter.

3

1316

84.8

1320

84.0

78.5

Black buoy "11" off starboard beam.

2

1338

84.7

1342

84.5

77.5

BRUCE on port beam.

2

1348

83.9

1354

84.5

78.0

Black channel (inside) buoy on port beam.

1

1355

1356

84.0

Inside green water.
Arrived ELMER.

8/25

1020

Departed ELMER.

1

1022

84.0

1025

83.5

76.5

At edge of green water.

2

1040

84.0

1045

83.0

76.8

Obstruction buoy "A" off starboard bow.

3

1100

84.5

1103

83.5

7Y.0

Black buoy "11" off starboard beam.

4

1121

84.5

1125

83.O

76.5

OSCAR on starboard bow.

5

1140
1142

84.5

Arrived MACK.

81

DATE
8/25

8/26

8/27

8/28

8/29

ELMER-MACK

LAGOON TRAVERSES,

AUGUST 18 - 31. 1957 TABLE 15

(Continued)

ZONE

TIME
1220

TT 8

TIME

TT

TT W

REMARKS
Departed MACK.

5

loop

84.8

1228

85.5

76.5

150 feet off MACK.

4

1242

84.8

1248

85.5

77.0

OSCAR on port quarter.

3

1301

85.0

1305

84.5

76.5

Black buoy n ll w off port beam.

2

1321

85.0

1325

85.2

75.6

Obstruction buoy "A" off port beam.

2

1335

83.9

1340

84.5

77.0

At red buoy "6". Current (about 6 knots)
running into lagoon at red buoy "6".

1

1342
1344

0945

84.4

At edge of the green water.
Arrived ELMER.

Boat departed BRUCE rather than ELMER.

2

0950

83.5

1000

84.0

79.5

100 yards from shore.

3

1010

83.8

1020

84.0

79.0

Intermittent shwrs. 1015-1100.

4

1030

83.5

1035

84.0

79.5

Buoy 400 yards to port.

5

1050
1100
1230

83.2

1055

82.5

78.5

300 yards off MACK. All readings taken by

holding bulb-end into wind.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1235

84.2

1240

83.5

78.5

200 yards off MACK.

4

1255

84.7

1300

84.5

78.0

3

1315

85.0

1320

84.0

78.0

Heavy rain shwr. N of MACK still visible at
1330.

2

1335

84.0

1340

84.0

78.0

300 yards south of red buoy "A".

1

1353
1400
1007

84.0

1357

85.0

78.5

300 yards off ELMER. All readings taken by
holding bulb-end into wind.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1010

83.7

1013

83.5

79.0

300 yards off shore.

2

1030

83.7

1032

84.5

79.0

Red buoy 400 yards to starboard.

3

1050

84.1

1052

84.5

79.5

4

1110
1120

1255

84.4

1113

85.0

79.5

Arrived MACK.
Departed MACK.

5

1300

84.5

1302

83.5

79.0

300 yards off MACK.

4

1320

84.3

1323

84.0

79.0

3

1340

84.3

1342

85.0

79.0

Black buoy 300 yards to port.

2

1400

84.3

1402

85.0

79.0

Obstruction buoy 200 yards to port.

1

1418
1423

0950

84.0

1420

86.0

79.0

300 yards off ELMER.
Arrived ELMER.

Boat departed BRUCE rather than ELMER.

2

0955

83.9

0957

84.5

78.0

At blue water-heading 300°.

3

1015

84.0

1016

84.0

78.5

Heading 300*.

4

1036

84.1

1035

84.5

78.0

Heading 300°.

5

1051
1053

1220

84.1

1050

85.0

78.5

Off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1220

84.4

1225

86.0

79.0

Few yards off MACK.

4

1240

84.0

^l {

85.0

79.0

3

1300

84.2

1303

85.0

78.0

Buoy n ll M .

2

1320

83.9

1324

84.0

78.5

1

1335
1339

1010

83.5

1334

84.5

78.0

At edge of blue water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1018

83.5*

1020

84.5

78.5

Buoy and REX in line.

2

1035

84. 0*

1038

84.5

78.5

3

1055

85.0»

1057

84.5

79.0

4

1115

84.5*

1118

84.0

79.0

PLACE: ELMER-MACK

LAGOON TRAVERSES, AUGUST 18 - 31, 1957

TABLE 15
(Concluded)

DATE
8/29

8/30

8/31

ZONE
5

5
4

3
2

1

1
2

3
4

5

5
4
3
2
2
1

1
2
3
4
5

5
4
3
2

1

TIME

1130
1130

1222
1222
1240
1300
1320
1335
1340

1013
1015

1033

1055
1115
1133

1135

1211
1213
1225
1245
1306
1320
1325
1327

1023
1025
1045
1105
1125
1135
1138

1245
1250

1315
1338
1401
1420
1422

TT,

TIME

TT

TT.

L 8 '«« " ** W

84.5* 1128 85.5 80.0

REMARKS

85.0
84.5
84.5
84.0
84.5

83.3

83.3

83.8
84.4
84.4

85.4
85.2
85.2
84.8
84.5
84.5

83.9
83.8
84.2
84.4
84.5

84.5
84.5
84.4
83.9
83.8

1224
1243
1302
1322
1338

1020
1037

1100
1119

1229
1248
1310
1323

1027
1048
1108
1127

1252
1317
1340
1408

87.5
87.0
86.0
85.5
86.0

80.0
80.5
80.0
79.0
79.5

80.5 77.0

80.5 77.0

81.0 76.5

83.0 79.0

83.5 77.0

83.5 78.5

83.0 79.0

83.5 79.0

84.0 79.0

84.0 78.5

84.0 79.0

84.5 79-0

86.0 79.0

85.5 78.0

85.0 80.0

85.5 79.5

Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

Few yards off MACK.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

150 yards off ELMER. Rain shwr. 300 yards

ahead.
Obstruction buoy "A" on starboard beam. Rain

shwr. 1000 yards off port bow.
OSCAR on starboard bow.
OSCAR on starboard beam.
200 feet off MACK. Many shwrs. over lagoon at

start of traverse; all dissipated by noon.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

150 feet off MACK.

OSCAR on port beam.

Black buoy "11" 500 yards ahead.

Obstruction buoy "A" off port beam.

Cement barge off port beam.

At blue water's edge.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

At edge of blue water.

Obstruction buoy "A" on port quarter.

Black buoy "U" astern 1000 yards.

OSCAR off starboard beam.

300 feet off MACK.

Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

1000 yards off MACK.

OSCAR on port quarter.

Black buoy "U" on port quarter.

Red lighted buoy "12" off port beam.

At edge of blue water.

Arrived ELMER.

* Temperatures read to nearest 0*5* F. only.

83

PLACE: BETWEEN ERUCE, KEITH, ELMER

LAGOON TRAVERSES, AUGUST, 1957
Traverse No. 1. BRUCE-KEITH

TABLE 16

DATE

TIME

TT S

TIME

TT

20th

0945

83.7

0945

88.0

0950

83.8

0950
0955

86.0
85.0

1000

84.2

1000
1005

85.0
85.0

1010

84.2

1010
1015

86.0
85.0

1020

84.0

1020
1025

85.0
85.0

1030

84.2

1030

84.5

1040

84.2

1040

1045

84.5
85.0

1050

84.0

1050
1055

84.5
85.0

1100

84.0

1100

1105

85.0
85.0

1110

84.2

1110

85.5

1115

84.4

1115

85.0

1120

84.6

1120

87.0

1125

84.6

1125

86.0

1128

84.2

1128

89.0

1203

83.8

1203

87.0

1205

84.6

1205

86.0

1210

84.6

1210

85-5

1220

Traverse No.

2. ELMER-

-KEITH-

BRUCE

DATE
23rd

TIME

TT e

TIME

TT

1025

84.0

1025

84.0

1030

83.8

1030

87.0

1035

84.0

1040

84.0

1040

84.0

1045

84.5

1050

84.0

1050

84.5

1055

84.5

1100

84.2

1100

85.0

1105

85.0

1110

84.2

1110

85.0

1115

85.0

1120

84.2

1120

85.0

1125

85.0

1130

84.6

1130

85.0

1135

85.0

1140

84.4

1140

85.5

1145

85.0

1150

84.4

1150

85.0

1155

84.4

1200

83.3

1205

84.0

1210

85.1

1220

84.0

1225

83.8

1320

1325

84.4

1325

86.0

REMARKS

In shallow water by BRUCE departing for KEITH.

Near obstruction buoy •'A' 1 .

Water shoaling.

100 yards from shore.

At shore - KEITH.

About 50 yards from shore.

50 yards to blue water. Course 110°.

Deep water. Course 115° •

Thermometer broke, observations discontinued.

R E M A R K S

Departed ELMER.
ELMER landing.
Heading 245-250°

Heading 245°.

Heading 250°.
Passing buoy.
Heading 250°.

Heading 250°.

Heading 250°.

Hazy sun.

1104 passing buoy.

At edge of blue water.

At buoy.

Halfway from buoy to shore on KEITH.

At KEITH, but still in water (at edge of shore).

Halfway from shore to buoy (starting now for

BRUCE).
At buoy.
Departed KEITH.
At edge of blue water.

84

PLACE: BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER

LAGOON TRAVERSES, AUGUST, 1957
Traverse No. 2. ELMER-KEITH-BRUCE

TABLE 16
(Continued)

DATE

TIME

TTg

TIME

TT

23rd

1330

84.4

1330
1335

84.0
84.0

1340

84.2

1340
1345

84.0
84-5

1350

84.4

1350
1355

84.5
84.5

1400

84.4

1400
1405

84.0
84.5

1410

84.4

1410
1415

84.0
84.5

1420

84.4

1420
1425

84.5
84.5

1430

84.3

1430
1435

84.0
83.0

1440

84.1

1440
1445

84.0
83.0

1450

84.2

1450
1455

84.0
83.0

1500

84.2

1500
1505

83.0
82.0

1510

84.1

1510

83.0

1515

84.1

1515

82.0

1518

84.8

1518

86.0

1521

84.9

1521

85.0

1525

85.3

1525
1527

85.5
84.8

Traverse No.

3. KEITH-BRUCE

REMARKS

Heading 70" true.
Heading 70' true.
Heading 75° true.
Heading 75° true.

DATE TIME
28th

TIME

TT

TT„

Cloudy with light shwrs.
100 yards S of buoy "A".

Heavy rain on BRUCE.

At edge of blue water.
200 yards off shore.
100 yards off shore.
Along shoreline at BRUCE.
Inshore.

REMARKS

1045

9

Departed KEITH.

1043

88.0

81.0

Edge of vegetation on shore at KEITH.

1045

85.0*

1045

86.5

79.0

Edge of water.

1050

84.0*

1052

85.0

79.0

5 yards from KEITH.

1055

84.0*

1057

84.5

80.0

100 yards from buoys at KEITH.

1100

84.0*

1102

84.0

80.0

1110

84.5*

1120

84.5*

1122

85.5

79.5

1130

84.5*

1132

85.0

79.0

1140

84.5*

1142

85.0

79.0

1150

84.5*

1152

84.5

78.5

1200

84.0*

1202

85.0

79.0

1210

84.0*

1212

85.0

78.5

1215

Buoy "A".

1220

84.0*

1222

85.0

79.0

1230

84.0*

1232

84.5

78.0

1235

84.0*

1237

85.0

78.0

1240

84.0*

1241

85.0

78.0

1242

84.5*

1242

85.0

78.0

100 yards from BRUCE.

1244

84.5*

1244

85.0

77.5

25 yards from BRUCE.

1245

85.0*

1245

85.0

78.5

Edge of water.

1247

85.5

78.5

Edge of vegetation on BRUCE.

85

PUCE: BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER

LAGOON TRAVERSES, AUGUST, 1957
Traverse No. 4. BRUCE-KEITH-ELMER

TABLE 16
(Concluded)

DATE

TIME
0930

TT S

TIME

TT

TT

REMARKS

31st

Departed BRUCE.

0927

86.0

79.5

Edge of vegetation on BRUCE.

0929

84.2

0929

85.0

79.0

Edge of water.

0951

84.2

0951

86.5

80.0

50 yards from water's edge.

0954

84.0

0954

86.0

79.5

Edge of blue water.

1000

84.0

1000

86.5

80.0

Course 250 8 .

1015

84.2

1015

86.5

79.0

Course 250°.

1030

84.2

1030

86.0

79.5

Course 250°.

1045

84.6

1045

86.0

79.5

Course 240".

1100

84.6

1100

87.0

80.5

Course 240°. 1103 passed red buoy (50 gallon
drum on coral head.

. 1115

84.7

1115

87.0

80.0

Course 240".

1125

84.7

1125

87.0

80.0

Course 240°.

1130

84.7

1130

86.5

80.0

1132

84.6

1132

86.5

80.5

Between KEITH buoys.

1134

85.3

1134

86.5

80.5

10 yards from water* s edge.

1136

86.4

1136

85.5

80.0

Edge of water.

1138

86.0

79.5

Edge of vegetation on KEITH.

1200

Departed KEITH.

1155

88.0

80.5

Edge of vegetation.

1157

86.9

1157

86.5

80.0

Edge of water.

1158

85.6

1158

87.0

81.0

15 yards from water* s edge.

1203

84.7

1203

85.0

79.5

Passed buoy.

1208

84.7

1208

87.0

80.5

Course 080°.

1225

85.1

1225

86.0

79.5

Course changed to 070°.

1240

84.9

1240

86.0

80.0

Course from 070 to 065°.

1255

84.7

1255

85.5

79.5

Course 060°.

1310

84.6

1310

86.0

80.0

Passed obstruction buoy; Course 060°.
1318 - 1321 rain shwr.

1325

84.6

1325

85.5

79.5

Passed lighted buoy; Course 065°.

1340

84.4

1340

85.5

79.5

Course 065°.

1350

84.2

1350

86.0

79.0

Passed buoy "B-l".

1356

Arrived ELMER.

86

PUCE: LAGOON-OCEAN

TAELB 17

LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSES, AUGUST, 1957

DATE

TIME

TT S

18th

1025

83.5

1042

83.7

REMARKS

From helicopter. About 500 yards off ELMER

reef, in ocean.
From helicopter. About 500 yards off KEITH

reef, in ocean.

DATE

TIME

TT S

TIME

TT

TT
w

23rd

1150

1156

83.0*

1158

85.0

80.0

1203

83.0*

1206

84.5

79.5

1217

83. 0*

1219

85.0

80.0

1232

83.0*

1235

86.0

80.0

1248

83.0*

1250

85.0

80.0

1304

83.5*

1306

85.5

80.0

1320

83.5*

1322

85.0

79.5

1333

83.0*

1335

84.5

79.0

1342

84.0»

1350

85.0

79.5

1400

REMARKS

Departed ELMER

In deep channel entrance.

Off entrance buoy "2".

Outside E of BRUCE.

Outside NE of SAM.

Outside E of BRUCE.

Outside E of ELMER.

Outside E of FRED.

Off black "1" buoy, SW of FRED.

In lagoon W of Sand Island.

Arrived ELMER.

87

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Phase (January 25 — February 8, 1958)

NOTES ; TABIDS 19-32

TABUS 19. FRED: HOURLY OBSERVATIONS AND DAILY SUMMARY.
See Notes for Table 4» PP» 39f .

TABLE 20. FRED: RAWINSONDE OBSERVATIONS.
See Notes for Table 5, p. 41.

TABLE 21. BRUCE: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS.

See Notes for Table 6, pp. 41-43* as well as the note below.

Experienced observers made the observations at BRUCE during the following interval (times
are inclusive): 1200 Jan 25 — 0900 Jan 27.

TABLE 22. BRUCE: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES.
See Notes for Table 9, p« 44.

TABLE 23. BRUCE AND KEITH: SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS.

TT S BRUCE. These measurements were made with an unshielded mercury- in-glass thermometer
graduated to half-degrees C. Readings were taken with the thermometer bulb at a depth of 1 to
6 inches beneath the surface of the water, with the reading being made to the nearest tenth of
a degree C. at that time when the mercury column had become steady at a minimum value. Mean
values of the several observations were converted to *F. in each instance and are estimated to
be correct within 0.2°F. in 9 out of 10 instances and within 0«5*F. in all instances ( see Notes
for Table 7 * pp. 43-44* and note that the mean based on several observations will be somewhat
more accurate than any single observation).

TT S KEITH values were read with the same type of thermometer described immediately above*
with the bulb at depths of 3-6 inches. Values were, however, read only to the nearest half-
degree. Values given represent a mean of several readings as shown and are accurate within
0.3* C.

TT and TT W were measured with an Asmann psychrometer (graduated in whole degrees F.), were
read to the nearest 0.5*F. , and are correct within 0.4*F. Heights are correct within 6 inches.

100

TABLE 24. KEITH: THREE-HOURLY OBSERVATIONS.

See Notes for Table 6, pp. 41-43 , as well as the note below.

Experienced observers made the observations at KEITH during the following interval (times
are inclusive): 1200 Jan 25 ~ 0900 Feb 4.

TABLE 25. KEITH: HOURLY RELATIVE HUMIDITIES.
See Notes for Table 9, p. 44.

TABLE 26. MACK: DAILY OBSERVATIONS.

See Notes for Table 10, pp. 44-45 , as well as note below.

Experienced observers made the observations at MACK on the following dates: Jan 26-30
(inclusive); Feb 3, 6, 7.

TT on Jan 25-29 (inclusive) was obtained from max and min thermometers after re-setting.
Values are correct within 0.5* F.

TABLE 27. MACK: BI-H0URLY TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITIES.
See Notes for Table 11, p. 45.

TABLE 28. ELMER: DAILY OBSERVATIONS.

See Notes for Table 12, p. 46, as well as note below.

Experienced observers made the observations at ELMER on the following dates: Jan 26 -
Feb 2 (inclusive); Feb 4, 5*

TABLE 29. JANET AND YVONNE: DAILY RAINFALL.
RR is accurate to 0.01 inch.
Time is accurate to within 5 minutes.

TABLE 30. ELMER-MACK: LAGOON TRAVERSES.

See Notes for Table 15, pp. 46-47, as well as notes below.

LOCATIONS by Zones are in doubt as follows: 1330, Jan 25 observation is near Zone 3, and
may be a few hundred yards within that zone; 1345, Jan 27 observation may also be just within
Zone 3; 1338, Jan 29, may also be just within Zone 3; 1344, Feb 6, may be up to a few hundred
yards within Zone 2*

TT from Jan 25 through Jan 29 was obtained from same thermometer used for TT a (Fahrenheit
thermometer graduated in tenths of a degree F.) and are correct within 0.2° F. where read to
the nearest tenth and within 0.4° F. where read to the nearest 0.5* F.

101

TABLE 31* BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER: LAGOON TRAVERSES.
See Notes for Table 16, pp. 47-48.

TABLE 32. LAGOON-OCEAN: LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSES.
See Notes for Table 17, p. 48.

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111

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

DATE TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

y d

(°c)

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

U.)

(°c)

(m/s)

1/25 0200

1015

Surface

27.0

22.6

77

50 -

7

1000

137

25.6

22.0

80

60 -

9

850

1549

19.0

11.1

60

90 -

11

700

3194

10.8

MB

(13)

100 -

10

600

4459

2.2

MB

(14)

100 -

10

500

5913

-5.0

MB

(15)

110 -

9

400

7633

-16.9

MB

(14)

100 -

8

300

9732

-31.0

MB

(20)

90 -

7

200

12465

-54.2

—

110 -

5

150

14252

-67.8

—

110 -

9

100

16614

-74.2

—

90 -

8

1130

1016

Surface

27.9

22.9

74

60 -

9

1000

146

26.7

22.6

78

70 -

10

850

1561

17.8

14.3

80

150 -

6

700

3207

12.0

MB

(12)

60 -

7

600

4476

4.3

MB

(13)

80 -

8

500

5935

-3.5

MB

(14)

90 -

12

400

7659

-14.7

MB

(16)

110 -

10

300

9767

-29.9

MB

(20)

100 -

9

200

12525

-52.0

—

100 -

11

150

14329

-65.6

—

110 -

9

100

16710

-76.8

—

120 -

9

2330

1015

Surface

26.9

22.1

75

60 -

8

1000

137

25.9

21.3

76

60 -

8

850

1550

16.5

13.1

80

60 -

6

700

3189

12.0

MB

(12)

80 -

5

600

4461

4.1

MB

(13)

90 -

8

500

5918

-4.9

MB

(15)

90 -

13

400

7644

-15.6

MB

(17)

80 -

14

300

9739

-32.3

MB

(20)

120 -

5

200

12473

-53.2

—

90 -

13

150

14261

-66.9

—

120 -

9

100

16636

-75*9

— —

110 -

5

1/26 1200

1016

Surface

25.4

19.1

67

40 -

9

1000

145

24.6

18.5

69

40 -

8

850

1546

14.2

8.7

70

40 -

9

700

3183

11.0

MB

(13)

60 -

4

600

4456

4.1

MB

(13)

50 -

4

500

5912

-5.6

MB

(15)

110 -

8

400

7638

-15.0

MB

(16)

160 -

11

*

300

9744

-32.0

MB

(20)

90 -

9

200

12470

-53.9

—

120 -

12

150

14258

-67.4

—

110 -

7

100

16622

-77.5

—

80 -

5

2335

1013

Surface

27.3

22.3

74

50 -

8

1000

119

26.1

21.6

76

50 -

9

850

1528

16.8

10.9

68

76 -

11

700

3171

10.8

MB

(13)

60 -

5

600

4445

5.1

MB

(13)

50 -

13

500

5911

-3.1

MB

(14)

120 -

12

400

7646

-14.6

MB

(16)

70 -

10

300

9750

-31.5

MB

(20)

110 -

8

200

12493

-53.5

—

140 -

7

150

14281

-67.6

—

130 -

9

100

16636

-81.1

—

120 -

8

112

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

(Continued)

DATE TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d Td

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

CO

( 8 C)

(m/s)

1/27 1210

1012

Surface

27.0

21.1

70

50 -

9

1000

111

26.0

20.9

73

50 -

9

850

1522

15.1

11.9

81

60 -

11

700

3161

12.0

MB

(12)

80 -

10

600

4441

6.7

ME

(13)

100 -

11

500

5918

-1.5

MB

(14)

90 -

6

400

7654

-14.5

MB

(16)

50 -

5

300

9763

-30.5

MB

(20)

90 -

9

200

12510

-52.3

—

160 -

9

150

14306

-67.1

—

210 -

7

100

16666

-79.1

—

190 -

7

2340

1012

Surface

26.8

20.5

68

60 -

8

1000

111

25.8

20.0

70

70 -

11

850

1515

16.4

-0.7

31

100 -

10

700

3155

10.7

MB

(13)

60 -

13

600

4424

4.5

MB

(13)

80 -

8

500

5890

-2.6

MB

(14)

70 -

11

400

7617

-15.4

MB

(16)

40 -

13

300

9720

-31.1

MB

(20)

60 -

8

200

12470

-52.8

—

160 -

4

150

14262

-66.1

—

170 -

9

100

16632

-77.4

—

—

70 -

7

1/28 1137

1013

Surface

26.7

18.9

62

80 -

7

1000

119

25.9

18.6

64

80 -

7

850

1526

14.4

9.5

72

60 -

6

700

3163

13.4

MB

(12)

60 -

9

600

/, y, /, f t

7.2

MB

(13)

90 -

6

500

5919

-2.0

MB

(14)

90 -

6

400

7649

-15.0

MB

(16)

90 -

5

300

9756

-31.0

MB

(20)

70 -

7

200

12508

-52.3

—

270 -

7

150.

14307

-66.5

—

270 -

5

100

16683

-76.6

—

90 -

3

2332

1011

Surface

25.7

19.4

68

70 -

8

1000

101

24.9

19.4

71

60 -

9

850

1506

14.4

12.3

87

90 -

12

700

3139

11.4

MB

(13)

110 -

4

600

4414

6.7

MB

(13)

60 -

11

500

5881

-3.9

MB

(14)

60 -

8

400

7663

-16.0

MB

(17)

100 -

11

300

9705

-31.3

MB

(20)

80 -

6

200

12445

-53.1

—

310 -

6

150

L4238

-66.4

—

350 -

6

100

16607

-73.2

_-.*■_

— —

140 -

9

1/29 1135

1012

Surface

26.7

20.6

69

90 -

10

1000

111

25.7

20.1

71

90 -

10

850

1515

15.4

8.0

61

90 -

8

700

3149

10.7

MB

(13)

70 -

3

600

4423

5.9

MB

(13)

30 -

9

500

5895

-4.2

MB

(14)

20 -

11

400

7625

-13.9

MB

(16)

60 -

9

300

9728

-32.5

MB

(20)

50 -

5

200

12448

-55.0

—

40 -

3

150

14228

-67.6

—

20 -

9

100

16596

-76.0

—

260 -

5

113

,

LACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

f ContirmoH ^

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

(°c)

(•c)

(m/s)

1/29

2359

1011

Surface

26.4

23.5

84

60 -

8

1000

102

25.9

23.2

85

60 -

8

850

1513

16.9

6.4

50

70 -

4

700

3152

13.9

MB

(12)

140 -

3

600

4433

6.0

MB

(13)

20 -

7

500

5900

-3.5

MB

(14)

90 -

3

400

7631

-13.6

MB

(16)

60 -

2

300

9742

-31.3

MB

(20)

350 -

7

200

12474

-52.6

—

240 -

7

150

14268

-66.2

—

260 -

13

100

16638

-79.9

— —

—

350 -

11

1/30

1350

1011

Surface

25.3

21.7

80

100 -

5

1000

101

24.8

21.2

80

100 -

5

850

1514

17.9

4.2

40

130 -

2

700

3147

12.7

-9.0

21

30 -

2

600

4422

4.9

MB

(13)

30 -

3

500

5895

-2.1

MB

(14)

20 -

6

400

7627

-14.7

MB

(16)

80 -

6

300

9724

-32.9

MB

(20)

310 -

3

200

12456

-58.0

—

280 -

11

150

14250

-66.3

—

360 -

4

100

16623

-77.0

—

350 -

3

2342

1010

Surface

26.9

23.0

79

70 -

7

1000

94

26.2

22.5

80

70 -

7

850

1507

18.4

13.1

71

110 -

3

700

3L41

6.4

5.2

92

60 -

2

600

4413

4.4

MB

(13)

60 -

3

500

5877

-3.9

MB

(14)

40 -

6

400

7601

-15.5

MB

(17)

10 -

5

300

9700

-32.5

MB

(20)

320 -

5

200

12435

-53.0

—

260 -

13

150

14227

-69.3

—

230 -

10

100

16593

-78.9

— — —

— —

280 -

3

1/31

1140

1011

Surface

24.3

18.5

70

80 -

7

1000

101

23.3

18.7

75

80 -

7

850

1495

L4.1

8.8

70

90 -

6

700

3112

11.0

MB

(13)

50 -

6

600

4378

3.4

MB

(13)

110 -

3

500

5831

-6.3

MB

(15)

40 -

7

400

7536

-17.7

MB

(17)

360 -

7

300

9615

-34.0

MB

(21)

330 -

6

200

12323

-54.9

—

260 -

7

150

14106

-67.5

—

240 -

13

100

I6468

-79.3

— — —

—

230 -

6

2/1

0100

1011

Surface

27.2

22.9

77

90 -

8

1000

102

26.5

22.4

78

80 -

9

850

1515

16.2

13.5

84

80 -

11

700

3158

13.0

MB

(12)

60 -

4

600

4438

7.0

MB

(13)

40 -

4

500

5910

-3.4

MB

(L4)

30 -

8

400

7630

-16.9

MB

(17)

20 -

8

300

9717

-32.5

MB

(20)

310 -

4

200

12442

-53.5

—

290 -

8

150

14229

-67.3

—

280 -

10

100

16593

-78.4

—

270 -

12

114

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

(Continued)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d Td

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

(°c)

Cc)

(m/s)

2/1

1200

1012

Surface

27.0

20.1

66

90 -

9

1000

111

26.2

20.4

70

90 -

9

850

1518

15.2

8.7

65

80 -

10

700

3155

12.6

MB

(12)

80 -

5

600

4431

6.0

MB

(13)

50 -

10

500

5894

-4.2

MB

(14)

70 -

6

400

7616

-15.6

MB

(17)

20 -

11

300

9719

-31.2

MB

(20)

310 -

5

200

12446

-53.9

—

360 -

5

150

14230

-66.8

—

230 -

14

100

16600

-77.9

—

60 -

3

2337

1012

Surface

25.9

23.0

84

60 -

9

1000

111

25.0

22.6

86

70 -

9

850

1520

16.3

16.2

99

80 -

11

700

3142

7.0

MB

(13)

90 -

11

600

4409

4.7

MB

(13)

90 -

14

500

5870

-2.7

MB

(14)

50 -

11

400

7596

-15.3

MB

(16)

20 -

16

300

9691

-32.5

MB

(20)

310 -

10

200

12411

-53.7

—

290 -

18

150

14201

-66.0

—

300 -

15

100

16574

-79.6

— — — —

— —

240 -

12

2/2

1200

1013

Surface

26.1

20.9

73

50 -

10

1000

118

25.3

20.6

75

50 -

11

850

1527

16.8

14.8

88

80 -

14

700

3167

12.5

3.5

54

100 -

11

600

4445

5.2

MB

(13)

80 -

12

500

5902

-4.8

MB

(15)

40 -

15

400

7618

-15.7

MB

(17)

20 -

13

300

9713

-32.7

MB

(20)

10 -

15

200

12440

-52.0

—

290 -

26

150

14243

-65.4

—

320 -

15

100

16624

-78.9

—

360 -

6

2340

1011

Surface

26.5

20.4

69

50 -

12

1000

102

25.5

19.9

71

60 -

12

850

1509

17.0

11.9

72

70 -

11

700

3149

12.0

MB

(12)

70 -

10

600

4426

5.0

MB

(13)

80 -

12

500

5886

-4.8

MB

(15)

60 -

10

400

7601

-17.7

MB

(17)

10 -

12

300

9678

-34.2

MB

(21)

340 -

13

200

12387

-54.2

—

300 -

17

150

14176

-65.8

—

310 -

14

100

16549

-78.5

— —

— —

360 -

5

2/3

1200

1011

Surface

27.2

22.0

73

60 -

8

1000

102

26.2

21.4

75

60 -

8

850

1507

15.2

10.8

75

70 -

12

700

3145

12.0

MB

(12)

70 -

14

600

4419

5.6

MB

(13)

60 -

12

500

5880

-5.7

MB

(15)

40 -

11

400

7585

-19.6

MB

(17)

360 -

11

300

9652

-32.0

MB

(20)

360 -

12

200

12404

-52.1

—

360 -

15

150

14208

-65.9

—

320 -

17

100

16691

-77.7

—

270 -

15

115

PLACE: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

(Continued)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

On.)

(°c)

(°c)

(m/s)

2/3

2335

1011

Surface

26.3

21.6

75

70 -

9

1000

102

25.6

21.3

77

70 -

9

850

1507

16.9

-0.3

31

100 -

13

700

3149

13.2

MB

(12)

70 -

13

600

4424

3.9

MB

(13)

60 -

14

500

5880

-6.0

MB

(15)

60 -

11

400

7585

-18.9

MB

(17)

40 -

19

300

9679

-30.1

MB

(20)

50 -

30

200

12427

-53.9

—

40 -

28

150

14214

-67-3

—

350 -

16

100

16572

-77.5

_

— —

340 -

14

2/4

1144

1012

Surface

26.2

21.0

73

80 -

8

1000

111

25.4

20.9

76

70 -

13

850

1519

16.0

14.5

91

90 -

8

700

3155

8.8

7.2

89

100 -

11

600

4423

3.0

MB

(13)

100 -

12

500

5875

-5.2

MB

(15)

70 -

13

400

7585

-19.0

MB

(17)

60 -

17

300

9690

-29.9

MB

(20)

40 -

16

200

12442

-52.0

—

10 -

11

150

14242

-65.6

—

10 -

14

100

16616

-75.6

—

40 -

9

2337

1009

Surface

26.3

22.2

78

40 -

9

1000

84

25.9

22.0

79

50 -

9

850

1496

15.9

13.9

88

70 -

11

700

3135

12.4

MB

(12)

80 -

11

600

4407

3.0

MB

(13)

130 -

5

500

5864

-4.6

MB

(15)

110 -

15

400

7574

-18.0

MB

(17)

90 -

13

300

9682

-30.5

MB

(20)

50 -

15

200

12428

-53.5

—

340 -

7

150

14219

-66.9

—

20 -

9

100

16577

-79.9

— —

—

60 -

10

2/5

1140

1009

Surface

25.0

19.0

69

70 -

8

1000

84

24.5

18.9

71

60 -

8

850

1492

16.9

10.9

68

50 -

8

700

3139

12.8

MB

(12)

100 -

8

600

4409

2.5

MB

(13)

60 -

7

500

5869

-3-2

MB

(14)

50 -

9

400

7600

-11.9

MB

(16)

40 -

9

300

9725

-29.4

MB

(19)

70 -

5

200

12477

-52.1

—

30 -

9

150

14280

-65.2

—

50 -

4

100

16661

-79.5

—

120 -

6

2/6

0200

1010

Surface

25.6

18.4

64

50 -

8

1000

93

25.0

18.8

68

60 -

8

850

1497

14.9

12.6

83

110 -

8

700

3141

10.3

MB

(13)

50 -

6

600

4406

3.9

MB

(13)

50 -

6

500

5866

-5.0

MB

(15)

70 -

2

400

7587

-15.9

MB

(17)

60 -

6

300

9692

-31.1

MB

(20)

150 -

2

200

12445

-52.7

—

150 -

4

150

14238

-66.5

—

270 -

1

100

16605

-80.0

—

350 -

5

116

,E: FRED

RAWINSONDE

OBSERVATIONS,

JANUARY 25

- FEBRUARY

8, 1958

TABLE 20

(Concluded)

DATE

TIME

LEVEL

HEIGHT

TT

T d T d

RH

DDFF

(mb.)

(m.)

(°c)

(°c)

(m/s)

2/6

1138

1012

Surface

27.4

19.2

61

60 -

8

1000

111

26.4

19.3

65

60 -

7

850

1517

14.1

10.7

80

80 -

7

700

3154

11.8

MB

(12)

80 -

5

600

4427

4.9

MB

(13)

80 -

4

500

5890

-5.0

MB

(15)

50 -

7

400

7608

-17.3

MB

(17)

80 -

5

300

9710

-30.0

MB

(20)

260 -

2

200

12463

-52.5

—

260 -

5

150

14259

-67.1

—

240 -

5

100

16628

-80.1

—

330 -

3

2343

1009

Surface

25.9

19.8

69

60 -

7

1000

84

25.2

19.4

70

60 -

8

850

1487

17.0

3-0

39

80 -

9

700

3125

10.4

MB

(13)

60 -

8

600

4394

5.2

MB

(13)

60 -

8

500

5851

-5.7

MB

(15)

80 -

4

400

7570

-15.2

MB

(16)

180 -

1

300

9670

-32.3

MB

(20)

270 -

5

200

12400

-54.6

—

250 -

8

150

14181

-68.7

—

310 -

5

100

16530

-79.7

— — —

—

330 -

4

2/7

1131

1010

Surface

26.5

20.1

68

60 -

8

1000

94

25.7

19.7

69

60 -

8

850

1501

15.2

7.5

60

70 -

11

700

3135

11.3

MB

(13)

60 -

11

600

4407

5.7

MB

(13)

30 -

4

500

5870

-4.4

MB

(14)

40 -

4

400

7595

-14.4

MB

(16)

100 -

2

300

9702

-31.7

MB

(20)

280 -

8

200

12444

-52.9

—

270 -

9

150

14242

-66.8

—

330 -

7

100

16612

-79.3

—

340 -

4

2345

1009

Surface

25.8

20.5

72

70 -

7

1000

84

25.1

20.2

74

70 -

7

850

1490

15.6

8.4

62

70 -

11

700

3130

10.5

MB

(13)

40 -

12

600

4393

3.1

MB

(13)

30 -

6

500

5849

-5.0

MB

(15)

360 -

2

400

7569

-14.9

MB

(16)

310 -

3

300

9671

-31.0

MB

(20)

290 -

13

200

12414

-53.5

—

310 -

12

150

14204

-67.8

—

300 -

10

100

16565

-80.0

—

300 -

6

2/8

1132

1010

Surface

26.0

18.8

64

60 -

8

1000

93

25.2

18.7

67

60 -

8

850

1496

15.0

11.0

77

90 -

8

700

3132

11.7

MB

(12)

60 -

8

600

4404

4.0

MB

(13)

40 -

6

500

5863

-4.5

MB

(15)

350 -

1

400

7586

-15.5

MB

(17)

300 -

3

300

9704

-29.8

MB

(20)

360 -

5

200

12463

-53.5

—

270 -

12

150

14258

-67.1

—

290 -

10

100

16621

-88.2

—

320 -

6

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121

PLACE: BRUCE AND KEITH
BRUCE 0730-0815
LOCATION

Lagoon, | ft. from shore
Lagoon, 5 ft. from shore
Lagoon, 8 ft. from shore
Lagoon, 5 yds. from shore
Lagoon, 6 yds. from shore
Lagoon, 8 yds. from shore

Ocean, \ ft. from shore

Ocean, 3-4 yds. from shore

Ocean, 25 yds. from shore

Ocean, 50 yds. from shore

Ocean, 75-100 yds. from shore;

20 yds. from edge of reef

SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS, JANUARY 28, 1958

TABLE 23

WATER DEPTH

NO. OF

TT S *

TT S

MEASUREMENTS

Cc)

(mean in 8 F.)

2 in.

5

4

- 26.2;
26.1

79.1

1 ft.

6

£

- 26.2;
26.3

79.2

2 ft.

5

1
2

- 26.2;

- 26.3

79.2

3 ft.

5

k

- 26.3;
26.2

79.3

4 ft.

5

2

- 26.3

79.3

5 ft.

5

2
2

- 26.4;

- 26.3

79.4

2 in.

5

2

- 24.0;
23.9;
24.1

75.2

6 in.

5

2

- 25.5;
25.6;
25.7

78.0

1 in.

5

2

26.4;
- 26.5;
26.6

79.7

2 in.

5

2

- 26.7

80.1

3 in.

5

2

- 26.7

80.1

BRUCE 1400-1515

Lagoon, g ft. from shore
Lagoon, 5 ft. from shore
Lagoon, 7 ft. from shore
Lagoon, 10 ft. from shore
Lagoon, 3 yds. from shore
Lagoon, 7-8 yds. from shore

Ocean, 10 yds. from shore

Ocean, 25 yds. from shore

Ocean, 50 yds. from shore

2 in.

1 ft.

2 ft.

3 ft.

4 ft.

5 ft.

Ocean, in tidal pool at shore 1-2 in.

Ocean, in tidal pool at shore 3 in.

6 in.

6 i

in.

6 in.

5

2 -

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81.4

2-

27.5

5

k -

27.3;
27.4

81.2

5

2 -

27.3

81.1

5

k-

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27.1

80.9

5

2 -

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80.9

2-

27.2

5

2 -

27.0;

80.7

2 -

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5

2-

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32.4;
32.5

90.2

5

31.4;

88.7

2 -

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2 -

31.6

5

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82.8

2 -

28.1;

2 -

28.3

5

2 -

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81.9

2 -

27.8

5

2 -

27.5;
27.6;
27.7

81.6

122

PLACE: BRUCE AND KEITH
BRUCE 1400-1515
LOCATION

Ocean, about 100 yds. from
shore; 10 yds. from
edge of reef

SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS, JANUARY 28, 1958

TABLE 2
(Concluded

WATER DEPTH

NO. OF

TT 8 *

TT S

MEASUREMENTS

Cc)

(mean in °F. )

1 ft.

5

2
2

27.0;

- 27.1;

- 27.2

80.8

KEITH 1520-1550

LOCATION

Lagoon side, on open ridge at upper end
of beach, about 20 yds. from water

HEIGHT
5 ft.

TT
83.0

"w
74.0

Among coconut trees, 50 yds. NW of tent,
10 yds. from open lagoon beach

5 ft.

81.5

72.0

Among Pisonia, ocean side of path, 150
yds. WNW of tent, halfway between ocean
beach and path

5 ft.

87.0

75.0

At upper edge of ocean beach, about
10 yds. from water

5 ft.

84.0

75.0

* Underlined values show number of observations at same temperature reading.
Thus: 3_ - 26.4 indicates 3 readings of 26.4° C.

KEITH, JANUARY 27

TIME

LOCATION

WATER DEPTH

NO. OF

MEASUREMENTS

TT «*
S

Cc)

0730

Lagoon surface water

1-2 ft.

3

25.0

1420

Ocean side of reef,
surface water

1 ft.

3

30.0

KEITH,

JANUARY 28

1415

Lagoon, successive surface
water readings out to 50
yards from shore

1-li ft.

28.5

** Readings constant within 0.5°C.

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127

PLACE: MACK DAILY OBSERVATIONS, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958

DATE TIME TT TT W T X T X T n T n RR N Cum DDFF

1/25 1200 81.0 3 lCu;2Ci E 18-22

1/26 1200 80.0 81.0 78.5 1 lCu;(Ci).... NE 14-16

1/27 1200 79.5 80.5 76.0 1 lCu;(Ac).... NE 17-20

1/28 1200 80.5 80.5 78.0 T 7 6Cu;2Ci NE 16

1/29 1150 80.0 81.0 78.0 5 5Cu;lCi NE 13-16

1/30 1200 79.5 80.5 74.0 4 (Cu);4CsCc. E 5-7

1/31 1210 83.5 76.5 83.5 79.0 T -

2/1 1200 81.0 73.5 81.5 78.0 0.09 1 lCu NE 18-20

2/2 1200 81.0 74.5 81.0 75.5 0.75 10 10Cu,Sc NE 20-25

2/3 1200 80.5 74.5 80.5 74.5 0.01 4 3Cu;2Ac NE 18

2/4 1200 78.5 75.0 80.0 73.5 0.09 10 10Cu;(Ci)... NE 12

2/5 1200 80.5 76.0 80.5 80.0? 0.01 2 2Cu NE 18

2/6 1200 80.5 73.0 81.0 77.0 3 lCu;3Ac NE 14

2/7 1200 80.5 72.5 80.5 77.0 1 lCu;lCi NE 13

2/8 0930 80.0 80.0 78.0 5 4Cu;lAc;4Ci. NE 12-15

REMARKS

1/25 Rainfall value covers period since 1400, 1/2/58.

1/26 Sea: Almost 2. Whitecaps barely forming.

L/27 Sea slight with whitecaps and with swells 4 feet.

l/28 Whitecaps barely forming.

L/29 Sea gentle, no whitecaps.

1/30 Banded Cc about 50* above SE horizon.

2/2 Wind seems to be increasing.

2/5 Sunny.

TABLE 26

SEA
(Code)

1

2

2

2

1
1

3
4
3
2
2
2
2
1

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129

PLACE:

ELMER

DAIL

DATE

TIME

TT

TT w

1/26

0900

81.0

74.0

1/27

1200

1/28

1200

1/29

1330

86.0

1/30

1200

86.5

1/31

1200

85.0

2/1

1200

85.0

75.0

2/2

1200

81.0

76.0

2/3

1200

82.0

75.0

2/4

1200

82.0

76.0

2/5

1200

86.0

76.5

2/6

1215

82.0

73.0

2/7

1320

84.5

74.5

1/29

1330

2/1

1200

2/2

1200

2/6

1215

OBSERVATIONS, JANUARY 26 - FEBRUARY 7, 1958 TABLE 28

T x T x T n T n RR N Clmh DDFF

85.0 69.0? 1 lCu;(Ci) NE 10-12

- 2Cu;4Ac NE 8-10

83.5 79.0 4 3Cu;lCi NE 8-10

86.0 78.0 (Cu);(Ci) E 6-8

87.5 76.0 4 2Cu;2Ac;lCi.... NE 6

90.5 78.0 5 5Cu NE 8-10

88.0 76.0 0.09 (Cu) E 12-15

86.5 74.0 0.26 10 lOCu E 15-18

82.5 73.0 0.01 5 5Cu;lAc NE 8-12

83.0 74.5 0.03 5 2Cu;3Ac;3Cc,Ci. NE 8-10

84.5 78.0 0.04 2 2Cu E 12

86.5 77.0 T 8 3Cu;5Sc NE 10

85.0 75.0 3 3Cu NE 12

REMARKS

Clear.

Some cumulus on horizon. Towering cumulus on western horizon. Shwrs. from
0830-0840; 0915-0925. Brief intense shwr. about 0045.

Rain at the following times: 2/l 2130-2145; 2330-2340. 2/2 0115-0200;
0245-0305; 0925-0945; 1130-1135; 1235-1245.

Cloudy and bright. W-N horizon cloudless.

130

PLACE: JANET AND YVONNE

TABLE 29

DAILY RAINFALL, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958

DATE

TIME

RR
JANET

TIME

1/25

0730

0*

1600

1/26

1000

1/27

0930

1600

L/28

0730

1650

1/29

0730

1640

1/30

0730

0.36

1630

1/31

0730

0.01

1650

2/1

0730

0.05

1630

2/2

*#

■JC-JH-c

2/3

0730

0.17

■JC-K-fc

2/4

0730

*-**-

2/5

0730

0.13

■JHHc

2/6

0700

■K-IB*-

2/7

0730

•K-M-M-

2/8

0730

tt-K-M-

RR
YVONNE

0*

0.05
0.20
0.15
0.17
0.05

T

REMARKS

* JANET total since 0730,

1/24; YVONNE total since
1652, 1/24/58.

*# Amount included in next
total.

*** About 1630

131

PLACE:

ELMER-MACK

LA

DATE

ZONE

TIME

TT S

1/25

1031

1

1035

80.5*

2

1040

80.5*

2

1056

80.5*

3

1115

80.5*

4

1135

80.5*

5

1150

81.0*-

1155

LAGOON TRAVERSES, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 7, 1958

TABLE 30

TIME

TT

TT.

w

REMA R K S

Departed ELMER.

Edge of deep water.

Near stern of grounded barge.

Off buoy "A".

On outward trip, boat bore westerly, then north-
easterly toward MACK; on return trip, it bore
easterly and approached ELMER from NE.

Arrived MACK.

1/26

1/27

1/28

1237

5

1240

81.0*

4

1300

80.5*

3

1320

81.0*

2

1330

81.0*

2

1350

80.5*

1

1402
1405

1015

80.5*

1

1017

80.5*

2

1038

80.5*

3

1057

80.5*

4

1117

80.5*

5

1137
1142

1225

80.5*

5

1245

80.5*

4

1305

80.5*

3

1320

80.5*

2

1340

80.5*

1

1347
1350

1024

80.5*

1

1026

81.0*

2

1046

81.0*

1045

76.0

3

1106

81.0*

1105

78.0

4

1126

81.0*

1125

77.0

5

1146

1152

1243

81.0*

1145

79.0

5

1245

81.0*

1244

77.0

4

1305

81.0*

1304

79.0

3

1325

81.0*

1324

79.5

2

1345

81.0*

1344

80.5

2

1405

81.0*

1404

80.5

1

1420
1425

1020

81.0*

1419

77.0

1

1024

81.0*

1023

81.0

2

1045

81.0*

1044

80.5

3

1104

81.0*

1103

80.0

4

1125

81.0*

1124

81.0

5

1142
1148

1246

81.0*

1141

80.0

5

1248

81.0*

1247

82.0

Departed MACK.

Buoy "B".

Edge of deep water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

Edge of deep water.

Off buoy "A".

Near black unmarked buoy.

300 yards from MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

300 yards from cement barge, near buoy "6".
Edge of shallow water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

Edge of deep water.

Buoy "A" 300 yards leeward and rear.

Buoy "11" 300 yards windward and rear.

OSCAR tower one mile windward.

MACK dead ahead 300 yards.

Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

200 yards off MACK.

OSCAR tower one mile.

Edge of deep water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.
Edge of deep water.

Off buoy "11".
One mile W OSCAR tower.
200 yards off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

200 yards off MACK.

132

PLACE:

DATE

1/28

ELMER-MACK

ZONE TIME

LAGOON TRAVERSES, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 7, 1958

TT e

TIME

1/29

1/30

1/31

4
3
2

1

1
2
3
4
5

5
4
3
2
2
1

1
2
3
4

5
4
3

2

1
2
3
4
5

1312
1333
1353
1415
1420

1017
1020
1042
1104
1124
1136
1140

1235
1237
1258
1317
1338
1400
1411
1415

1017
1020
1040
1100
1120
1137

1236
1238
1300
1320
1340

1357
1401

1002
1002
1021
1040
1059
1118

1120

81.0* 1311

80.5* 1332

80.5* 1352

81.0-::- 1414

81.7
81. 3
81.1
80.8
81.1

8I.3
81.3
81.1
81.1
81.1
81. 3

81.0*
81.0*
81.0*
81.0*
81.0*

1019
1041
1103
1123
1135

1236
1257
1316
1337
1359
1410

81.5 1019

81.5 1039

80.6 1059
80.6 1119

82.4 1237

81.5 1259
81.5 1319
81.5 1339

1005
1024
1044
1102
1120
1120

TT TT^

81.5

80.5
80.0
81.5

84.0
80.5
81.0
81.0
80.5

82.0
82.0
81.0
81.0
82.0
82.0

81.5 77.0

80.5 77.0

81.5 78.0

81.5 77.0

81.5 78.0

80.5 78.0

80.5 77.0

80.5 78.0

REMARKS

TABLE 30
(Continued)

81.5 1356 81.5 76.0

84.0
82.5
82.0
82.5
84.0
83.5

76.0
76.0
76.0
76.0
77.5
76.5

One mile W OSCAR tower.

Buoy "11".

Buoy "A".

Edge of deep water.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

Edge of deep water.

Four minutes past red buoy.

200 yards off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

200 yards off MACK.

Buoy "8".

Edge of shallow water.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.
Edge of deep water.
200 yards east of buoy.

Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

200 yards off MACK.

It was noted upon leaving MACK at 1236 that a
mass of low cumulus had appeared and was
moving in from SE. This Cu was not visible at
1200 from MACK. This Cu passed overhead and
disappeared to NW by 1330.

Edge of shallow water.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

Edge of deep water.

Buoy "A".

Buoy "11".

1000 yards SE of OSCAR.

MACK.

MACK.

Arrived MACK.

2/1

5
4
3
2

1

2

3

1215
1218
1238
1257
1317
1340
1345

1017
1020

1040
1058

Departed MACK.
81.0* 1220 82.5 77.0 200 yards off MACK.
81.0* 1240 83.5 77.5 2500 yards SE OSCAR.
81.0* 1300 82.5 77.0 700 yards S of buoy "11".
81.0* 1320 82.5 77.0 400 yards S of buoy "A".
81.5* 1342 83.5 77.0 Edge of deep water.

Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.
81.0* 1024 81.5 74.5 Edge of deep water. Light rain from 1020 to

1050. Sun out at 1055. During rain period

9Cu; state of sea 2.
81.0* 1043 80.0 75.5 150 yards N buoy "A".
80.CH:- 1103 79.0 75.0 Buoy "ll".

133

PLACE: ELMER- MACK'

LAGOON TRAVERSES, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 7, 1958

TABLE 30
(Continued)

DATE ZONE

TIME
1119

TT S
80.0*

TIME
1123

TT
80.0

TT W
75.0

REMARKS

2/1 4

2000 yards S of OSCAR.

5

1134
1140

1248

80.0*

1135

80.0

75.5

200 yards off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1250

80.5*

1254

81.0

74.0

200 yards off MACK.

4

1310

80.0*

1312

81.0

74.0

250C yards S of OSCAR.

3

1333

80.5*

1335

81.0

74.0

Buoy "11".

2

1355

81.0*

1358

80.5

74.0

Buoy "A".

2

1413

81.0*

1415

80.5

73.5

Cement barge.

1

1420
1425

81.0*

1420

81. 5

73.0

Edge of shallow water.
Arrived ELMER.

2/2

1014

Departed ELMER.

1

1015

80.0*

1016

78.0

75.5

Edge of deep water.

2

1030

80.0*

1029

79.0

76.0

Black buoy "7 M .

3

1050

80.0*

1049

80.0

76.0

4

1110

80.0*

1109

79.5

75.0

5

1130
1140

1225

80.0*

1129

80.5

75.0

Arrived MACK.
Departed MACK.

5

1225

80.5*

1226

84.0

76.0

At MACK.

4

1245

80.5*

1244

82.0

76.0

4

1305

80.0*

1304

81.0

75.5

3

1325

80.0*

1324

81.0

75.5

2

1345

80.0*

1344

80.0

76.5

1
2/3

1357
1400

1016

80.5*

1356

81.0

76.0

Edge of shallow water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1019

80.0*

1018

80.0

73.5

Edge of deep water.

2

1040

80.0*

1039

79.5

75.5

Eleven minutes beyond buoy "8".

3

1100

80.0*

1059

78.5

75.5

4

1119

80.0*

1118

78.0

73-5

5

1141

1145

1240

80.0*

1140

78.5

74.0

200 yards from MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1243

80.0*

1242

80.0

75.5

200 yards from MACK.

4

1305

80.0*

1304

80.5

75.0

3

1325

80.0*

1324

80.5

75.5

2

1347

80.0*

1346

80.5

75.0

2

1405

80.5*

1404

81.0

75.0

1
2/4

1418
1421

1023

80.0*

1417

81.0

75.0

Edge of deep water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1025

80.0*

1026

79.0

75.5

Edge of blue water.

2

1045

80.0*

1047

79.0

75.5

200 yards N of buoy "A".

3

1103

80.0*

1105

79.0

75.5

300 yards N of buoy "11".

4

1125

80.0*

1128

79.0

75.5

1500 yards S of OSCAR.

5

1138

1145
1245

80.0*

1140

80.0

75.5

200 yards off MACK. Rain shwr.

1140 to 1150.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1248

81.0*

1250

80.0

76.0

100 yards off MACK. Rain shwr.
I25O.

4

1309

81.0*

1310

80.5

76.5

2500 yards SW of OSCAR.

3

1326

81.0*

1328

80.5

76.0

500 yards NE of buoy "11".

2

1345

80.0*

1346

79.5

76.0

300 yards NE of buoy "A".

1

1405
1408

80.0*

1405

79.0

75.0

Edge of blue water.
Arrived ELMER.

at MACK from

from 124O to

134

PLACE: ELMER-

-MACK

LAGOON TRAVERSES,

JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 7. 1958 TABLE 30

DATE ZONE

TIME
1010

TT S

TIME

TT

TT W

REMARKS

2/5

Departed ELMER.

1

1014

80.0*

1014

82.0

75.0

Edge blue water.

2

1031

80.0*

1033

81.0

75.0

Buoy "A".

3

1048

80.0*

1049

81.0

75.0

Buoy "11".

4

1105

80.0*

1106

80.5

75.0

2000 yards S. of OSCAR.

5

1120
1130

1228

80.0*

1121

81.0

74.0

150 yards S. of MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1230

80.0*

1231

80.5

74.5

150 yards S. of MACK.

4

1248

80.0*

1250

80.0

74.5

3 Miles S. of OSCAR.

3

1305

80.0*

1307

80.0

74.0

Buoy "11".

2

1323

80.0*

1325

80.0

74.5

Buoy "A".

1
2/6

1342

1344

10L4

80.0*

1342

82.0

74.0

Edge of blue water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1016

80.0*

1016

80.0

72.5

Edge of deep water.

3

1036

80.0*

1036

80.5

73.0

Off buoy "11".

4

1056

80.0*

1056

80.0

71.5

4

1115

80.0*

1115

80.0

72.5

7 minutes SW of OSCAR.

5

1140

1145

1241

80.0*

1140

79.5

72.5

200 yards off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1244

81.0*

L244

83.0

74.5

200 yards off MACK. Rain 1259-1301.

4

1303

80.5*

1303

82.5

74.5

1 mile WSW of OSCAR.

3

1323

80.5*

1323

82.5

73.5

3

1344

80.0*

1344

83.0

72.0

Off buoy "11".

1
2/7

1410
1412

1016

80.0*

1410

83.0

73.5

Edge of deep water.
Arrived ELMER.

Departed ELMER.

1

1019

80.0*

1019

81.0

73.0

Edge deep water.

2

1038

80.0*

1038

81.0

73.5

Off buoy "8".

3

1059

80.0*

1059

80.5

73.0

4

1120

80.0*

1120

80.5

73.0

1 mile W of OSCAR.

5

1136
1139

1225

80.0*

1136

80.5

73.5

200 yards off MACK.
Arrived MACK.

Departed MACK.

5

1227

81.0*

1227

81.5

74.0

200 yards off MACK.

4

1247

80.5*

1247

82.0

74.0

1 mile off OSCAR.

3

1307

80.5*

1307

82.5

74.0

2

1328

80.5*

1328

82.0

74.5

100 yards N of buoy "10".

1

1345
1348

80.0*

1345

83.0

74.5

Edge of deep water.
Arrived ELMER.

135

t

PLACE: BETWEEN BRUCE, KEITH, ELMER

TABLE 31

LAGOON TRAVERSES, FEBRUARY, 1958

Traverse No. 1. BRUCE-KEITH

DATE

TIME

TT S

TIME

TT

TT W

1st

1010

1012

80.0*

1014

80.5

75.0

1030

80.5*

1035

80.5

75.0

1040

80.5*

1042

80.0

75.0

1100

80.5*

1103

79.0

75.0

1120

80.5*

1123

81.0

75.5

1139

80.5*

1141

81.5

76.0

1155

80.5*

1157

83.0

75.5

1202

80.5*

1204

80.5

74.5

REMARKS

Departed BRUCE.

Edge of deep water at BRUCE.

10 yards off buoy "B M .
Immediately after light rain

Edge of deep water at KEITH.

shwr.

Traverse No. 2. BRUCE-KEITH-EIMER

DATE

TIME

TT S

TIME

TT

TT
Xi w

7th

0934

79.0*

0934

80.5

73.0

0937

79.5*

0937

80.5

73.0

0957

80.0*

0957

81.5

74.5

1017

80.0*

1017

80.5

73.0

1037

80.0*

1037

80.5

73.5

1057

80.0*

1057

80.0

72.5

1114

80.0*

1114

81.0

74.0

1116

79.5*

1116

81.0

73.0

1117

1137

80.0*

1137

81.0

73.5

1157

80.0*

1157

81.0

73.5

1217

80.0*

1217

81.5

74.0

1237

80.0*

1237

81.0

74.0

1258

80.5*

1258

81.5

74.0

1300

REMARKS

15 yards off BRUCE.
Edge of deep water.

Departing for KEITH.

Edge of deep water.

Between buoys.

At KEITH departing for ELMER.

Edge deep water off EIMER.
Arrived ELMER.

136

PLACE: LAGOON-OCEAN

TABLE 32

LAGOON-OCEAN TRAVERSE, FEBRUARY, 1958

DATE

TIME TTc

TIME TT TT,

REMARKS

6th

0850

Departed FRED.

0854

80.0*

0908

80.0*

0915

80.0*

0926

80.0*

0938

80.0*

0950

80.0*

1004

80.0*

1016

80.0*

1039

80.0*

1058

80.0*

1108

80.0*

1115

80.5 74.5 Edge of deep water.

80.0 73«5 Between channel marker buoys in the South
Channel.

80.0 74«0 Outside, end of five minute run on Course
190° magnetic.

80.0 74»0 Outside, end of ten minute run around west
side of the reef.

80.0 74.5 Outside, off KEITH.

80.5 74.5 Outside, NW of KEITH.

80.0 74.5 Outside, off KEITH.

79.5 74.0 Outside, between KEITH and South Channel.

81.0 74.5 Between channel marker buoys in the South
Channel.

80.0 72.0 Off FRED (northern end) approximately one
mile in lagoon.

81.0 73.0 Edge of deep water off ELMER by the
personnel pier.

Arrived ELMER. Water temperatures outside
the lagoon were a little over 80.0 and
inside were a little under 80.0°F.

137

Part D. Observational Data for Extensive Phase
(September, 1957 — August, 1958)

NOTES ; TABLES 33-38

For comments regarding raingage locations and relative accuracy of Gages 1 and 2 on FRED,
see General Notes, p. 28. For comments regarding bias of raingage readings on MACK, see Notes
for Table 10, p. 44.

In general , all rainfall observations in these Tables are correct to 0.01 inch. Times are
correct within 10 minutes, except that the 0000 time for rainfall observations at FRED is
correct within 3 minutes.

138

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1

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33

PLACE: FEEL

COMPARATIVE RAIN

FALL OBSER\

NATIONS,

TABLE Ik

AUGUST, 1957

- JANUARY,

1958

TIME OF

TIME OF

DATE OF

GAGE #1

GAGE #1

GAGE #2**

DATE OF

GAGE #1

GAGE #1

GAGE #2**

READING

READING

READING

READING

8/18/57

1215

11/12/57

0900

1.80

1.78

8/19

1200

11/13

0855

0.16

5.28

8/20

1200

11/14

0925

1.96

T

8/21

1200

0.15

0.15

13/15

0900

0.05

0.06

8/22

1200

0.15

0.01

11/16

0905

T

8/23

1200

0.05

0.41

11/17

*

8/24

1200

0.50

0.05

11/18

#

0.90

8/25

1200

11/19

0906

3.68

T

8/26

1200

0.01

0.02

11/20

0900

0.02

0.01

8/27

1200

0.52

0.50

11/21

0900

8/28

1200

0.55

lL/22

0900

0.02

8/29

1200

0.01

0.01

11/23

1600

0.03

0.08

8/30

1200

0.35

0.32

11/24

1600

0.25

0.14

8/31

0.35

0.06

Li/25

0900

1.04

0.12

9/1

0904

0*HB$-

0.02

LL/26

0900

0.06

0.08

9/2

0900

T

ll/27

0900

0.30

0.06

9/3

0900

T

II/28

0900

T

0.01

9/4

0900

0.69

0.54

1L/29

0855

0.02

0.01

9/5

0900

0.60

0.12

11/30

1800

0.25

0.20

9/6

0855

0.80

12/1

0930

0.01

0.01

9/7

0900

T

12/2

0855

0.06

0.05

9/8

0900

1.00

1.30

12/3

0905

T

T

9/9

0900

0.50

T

12/4

0858

T

0.01

9/10

0900

0.23

0.30

12/5

0930

0.73

0.96

9/11

0850

T

T

12/6

*

9/12

0900

0.17

0.15

12/7

1100

0.02

0.02

9/13

0900

T

T

12/8

*

0.03

9/14

0900

T

0.08

12/9

0900

0.81

1.04

9/15

0900

0.20

0.11

12/10

0900

0.23

9/16

0910

0.11

0.01

12/11

*

T

9/17

1000

T

12/12

0900

T

T

9/18

0915

0.03

12/13

0900

T

9/19

0910

0.81

T

12/14

0900

T

T

9/20

0900

0.30

0.25

12/15

*

0.01

9/21

0900

0.01

T

12/16

0900

T

0.06

9/22

0920

0.01

T

12/17

0900

0.06

T

9/23

0905

T

12/18

0900

T

T

9/24

0915

0.15

0.15

12/19

0900

0.05

0.05

9/25

0900

0.01

T

12/20

0900

T

0.25

9/26

1300

0.01

0.01

12/21

0855

9/27

0900

0.01

12/22 Break in record, Gage #1

9/28

0900

0.03

0.32

9/29

0905

0.41

0.10

1/1/58

0900

0.26

0.22

9/30

1040

0.12

0.10

V2

0900

0.15

0.36

10/1

0905

0.06

0.02

V3

0900

0.21

0.03

10/2

0900

T

3/4

0900

0.06

0.03

10/3

0900

T

T

^ 5

0900

10/4

0900

0.12

0.28

1/6

0900

0.05

10/5 Break in record, Gage #1

V7

0900

0.05

T

n/i

1300

0.03

0.15

3/8

0900

T

0.05

11/2

0900

0.20

0.21

V9

0900

0.03

0.06

11/3

1030

0.15

0.12

l/lO

0900

0.06

0.19

11/4

0855

0.10

0.01

3/11

0900

0.19

11/5

0855

0.37

2.37

l/l2

0900

11/6

■*

0.15

l/l3

0900

0.01

11/7

0900

1.97

0.02

1/14

0900

0.04

0.12

11/8

0855

0.25

0.26

3/15

0900

0.09

T

11/9

*

0.02

1/16

0900

T

T

11/10

0925

0.05

0.08

1/17

0900

0.02

0.02

11/11

0930

0.10

0.18

1/18

0900

T

T

140

PLACE: FRED

COMPARA
AUGU

TIME OF

DATE OF

GAGE #1

GAGE #1

GAGE #

READING

READING

1/19/58

0900

1/20

0900

T

T

1/21

0900

0.01

0.63

1/22

0900

0.64

0.10

V23

0900

0.06

1/24

0900

l/25

0900

T

T

1/26

0900

1/27

0900

l/28

0900

0.01

T

1/29

0900

1/30

0900

1/31

0900

T

COMPARATIVE RAINFALL OBSERVATIONS,
AUGUST, 1957 - JANUARY, 1958

TABLE 34
(Concluded)

* Amount included in next total.
** 24 hour rainfall ending 2400 ( 180th meridian) on the date shown.
#*# Not measured but believed to be zero.

141

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143

PLACE:

JANET
TIME

RR

DAILY RA]
DATE

:nfall, *

TIME

MJGUST 30, 1957 -
RR DATE

• APRIL 29, 1958
TIME RR

DATE

Tj
TIME

iBLE 37

DATE

RR

8/30/57

0915

0.15**

* 11/5/57

0800

0.41

1/8/58

0730

3/13/58

0730

0.09

8/31

0915

0.01

11/6

0730

3.03

1/9

0730

0.08

3/14

■*

9/1

■K-

11/7

0730

0.31

l/lO

0730

0.05

3/15

0730

0.23

9/2

#

11/8

0730

0.34

1/11

0730

3/16

1000

9/3

0915

0.63

11/9

0730

0.03

l/l2

0930

3/17

0730

9/4

0915

0.05

11/10

0930

0.02

1/13

0730

3/18

0730

0.06

9/5

0915

0.01

11/11

0730

0.02

1/14

0730

0.19

3/19

0730

0.06

9/6

0915

0.00

11/12

0730

1.45

1/15

0730

0.06

3/20

0730

0.03

9/7

0915

0.01

11/13

0730

0.06***l/l6

0730

0.01

3/21

0730

9/8

*

11/14

0730

0.88

1/17

0730

0.08

3/22

0730

9/9

0915

0.39

11/15

0730

0.04

1/18

0730

0.08

3/23

1100

9/10

0915

0.01

11/16

0730

0.12

1/19

0930

3/24

0730

9/11

0915

0.11

11/17

0930

l/20

0730

3/25

0730

0.03

9/12

0915

0.05

11/18

0730

L/21

0730

0.12

3/26

*

9/13

0915

11/19

0730

1.53

1/22

0730

0.07

3/27

0730

9/14

0915

1L/20

0730

0.04

1/23

0730

0.04

3/28

0730

9/15

*

ll/21

0730

l/24

0730

3/29

0730

9/16

0915

0.01

lL/22

0730

1/25

0730

3/30

«■

9/17

0915

11/23

0730

0.07

1/26

1000

3/31

0730

9/18

0915

0.01

11/24

0730

0.56

V27

0930

4/1

0730

0.07

9/19

0915

11/25

0730

0.13

1/28

0730

4/2

0730

0.01

9/20

0915

0.03

11/26

0730

0.01

l/29

0730

4/3

0730

1.12

9/21

0915

0.31

11/27

0730

0.06

1/30

0730

0.36

4/4

0730

0.08

9/22

*

11/28

0730

0.34

1/31

0730

0.01

4/5

0730

9/23

0915

0.33

11/29

0730

0.26

2/1

0730

0.05

4/6

*

9/24

0915

0.22

11/30

0730

0.29

2/2

#

4/7

0730

0.24

9/25

0915

0.25

12/1

0930

2/3

0730

0.17

4/8

0730

0.12

9/26

0915

0.02

12/2

0730

0.01

2/4

0730

4/9

0730

9/27

0915

0.20

12/3

0730

2/5

0730

0.13

4/10

0730

9/28

1615

0.14

12/4

0730

0.14

2/6

0700

4/11

0730

0.12

Break in

record.

12/5

0730

0.26

2/7

0730

4/12

0730

0.37

Rainfall

unknown,

12/6

0730

0.22

2/8

0730

4/13

0730

10/4

0730

0.13**

- 12/7

0730

2/9

1000

4/14

0730

10/5

0730

0.01

12/8

0930

0.16

2/10

0730

4/15

0730

0.17

10/6

*■

12/9

0730

0.14

2/11

0730

0.23

4/16

0730

0.11

10/7

0730

1.45

12/10

0730

0.16

2/12

0730

0.08

4/17

0730

0.02

10/8

0730

12/11

0730

2/13

0730

4/18

0730

10/9

0730

12/12

0730

0.08

2/14

0730

0.07

4/19

0730

0.12

10/10

0730

0.18

12/13

0730

2/15

0730

4/20

•M-

10/11

0730

0.06

12/14

0730

2/16

0930

4/21

0730

0.11

10/12

0730

12/15

0930

2/17

0730

0.07

4/22

0730

10/13

0930

1.09

12/16

0730

0.03

2/18

0730

4/23

0730

0.18

10/14

0730

0.17

12/17

0730

2/19

0730

4/24

0730

0.01

10/15

0730

2.42

12/18

0730

0.02

2/20

0730

4/25

0730

0.01

10/16

0730

0.01

12/19

0730

0.36

2/21

0730

4/26

0730

0.06

10/17

0730

0.11

12/20

0730

2/22

0730

4/27

0730

10/18

0730

0.12

12/21

0730

0.08

2/23

0930

4/28

0730

10/19

0730

0.03

12/22

0930

2/24

0730

4/29

0730

10/20

0900

0.15

12/23

0730

2/25

0730

10/21

0730

12/24

0730

2/26

0730

0.08

* Amount

, included in

10/22

0730

12/25

1100

2/27

0730

next

total.

10/23

0730

0.44

12/26

0730

0.03

2/28

0730

10/24

0730

0.25

12/27

0730

0.02

3/1

0730

** Amount

- in last 24

10/25

0730

0.46

12/28

0730

0.01

3/2

#

hours

1.

10/26

0730

0.17

12/29

0930

0.14

3/3

0700

0.29

10/27

0930

0.12

12/30

0730

3/4

0730

0.02

*** Gauge

was covered

10/28

0730

0.01

12/31

0730

0.02

3/5

0730

0.05

when

checkec

.

10/29

0730

0.09

1/1/58

0730

0.40

3/6

0730

0.02

Doubtful value.

10/30

0730

0.16

1/2

0730

0.02

3/7

0730

0.11

10/31

0730

0.03

1/3

0730

0.07

3/8

•a-

11/1

0730

0.05

V4

0730

0.01

3/9

1000

11/2

0730

0.25

1/5

0930

0.06

3/10

0730

0.01

11/3

0930

0.01

V6

0730

3/11

0730

11/4

0730

0.01

V7

0730

0.12

3/12

0730

0.29

144

PLACE: YVONNE

DAILY RAINFALL,

FEBRUARY 8

- APRIL 21

, 1958

TABLE 38

FEBRUARY

TIME

RR

MARCH

TIME

RR

APRIL

TIME

RR

1

1650

1

1700

2

1600

T

2

1700

3

1600

0.02

3

1700

0.02

4

1650

0.06

4

1700

0.03

5

1600

5

1700

0.12

6

1650

0.02

6

1700

0.22

7

1600

7

1700

0.07

8

**

8

1630

0.07

8

1700

9

■K-

9

*

9

1700

0.10

10

1640

10

1620

0.04

10

1700

0.50

11

1500

0.07

11

1650

0.05

11

1700

1.45

12

1655

0.08

12

1630

0.03

12

1700

13

1655

13

*

13

1700

14

1655

T

14

1630

0.07

14

1700

0.34

15

1650

15

1630

15

1700

0.30

16

#

16

1650

0.01

16

1700

0.03

17

1640

17

1750

0.07

17

1700

18

1650

18

1700

18

1700

0.02

19

1640

19

1715

0.20

19

1700

0.18

20

1650

20

1640

20

1700

0.10

21

1640

21

1700

21

1700

22

1650

T

22

1710

23

*

23

1700

24

1630

T

24

1715

25

1600

0.07

25

1710

26

1650

0.03

26

1700

27

1600

27

1700

28

1610

T

28

1720

T

-H-*

Time of
1630.

29
observation about

30

1700
1640

0.01

31

1700

*

Amount

included

in next

reading.

145

APPENDICES II AND III

J

APPENDIX II.

INDICES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS

CON1ENTS

Notes for Tables E through F

Table A. FRED: INDEX NUMBERS OF RADARSCOPE PHOTOS, AUGUST 18- SEPTEMBER 1, 1957

Table B. FRED: INDEX NUMBERS OF RADARSCOPE PHOTOS, JANUARY 25-FEBRUARY 6, 1958

Table C. BRUCE: INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES A,

AUGUST 21 - 31, 1957

Table D. KEITH: INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES A,

AUGUST 18 - 31, 1957

Table E. BRUCE: INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES B,

JANUARY 29 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958

Table F. KEITH: INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES B,

JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958

U9

NOTES ; TABIDS A THROUGH F

GENERAL : Photographs listed In this Appendix can be borrowed for scientific use for a
period that will be expected not to exceed 30 days* Requests for photographs on loan should
be addressed to the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington 25, D. C, Attention ; Public Information
Coordinator. In ordering photographs refer specifically to MICROCLIMATIC OBSERVATIONS AT
ENIWETOK, distinguish specifically between Radarscope and Cloud photos, and list the photos
required both by dates and by index numbers *

TABLES A AND B . On these photos, true north is directly at the top. The range is 75 milea
Times are correct within 5 minutes.

TABLES C THROUGH F . The camera was hand-held, with orientation uaualjly determined by
markers that had been established using a Brunton compass. Directions given are true and are
estimated to be correct within 10* (plus or minus). It will be noted that the standard
directions were so selected that one of the pairs of photographs from BRUCE was taken facing
KEITH and the other was taken 90* clockwise from this direction. Similarly, one of the
photographs from KEITH was normally taken facing BRUCE, and the other was taken 90* clockwise
from this direction. Directions other than these standard ones were used primarily to avoid
having to take a photograph directly into the sun. Quality of the photographs varies. All
photos indexed are sufficiently clear to show the general form of the clouds (if any) and the
general amount of cloud within the view of the camera (not including high, thin cirrus).
However, the photos whose quality is only fair are not sufficiently sharp to discriminate
between cloud types that sometimes closely resemble one another, as between cumulus and
marginal forms of strato- cumulus (cumulus with some stratification). Times given refer to
180th meridian and are correct within 5 minutes.

150

PLACE:

TIME

0000
0015
0245
0300

0315
0545
0600
0615
0845
0900
0915
1145
1200
1215
1445
1500
1515
1745
1800
1815
2045
2100

2115
2345

FRED

INDEX NUMBERS OF RADARSCOPE PHOTOS, AUGUST 18 - SEPTEMBER 1, 1957*
(Eniwetok dates and times - 180th meridian)

TABLE A

DATE

18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th

1
2
3

4
5

6
7

8
9

10

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

11
12
13
14
15

32

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41

71

30
31

42

43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

60
61
52
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70

72

73
74
75

76 98

77 99

78 100

79 101

80 102

103

104

81 105

82 106

83 107

84 108

85 109

86 110

87 111

88 112

89 113

90 114

91 115

92 116

93 117

94 118

95 119

96 120

97 121

30th 31st 1st

122

123

124

125

126

127 135

128 136

129 137

130 138

131 139 153

132 140 154

133 141

142

143

144

134 145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

* Blanks indicate no photograph was obtained.

151

PLACE: FRED INDEX NUMBERS OF RADARSCOPE PHOTOS, JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958* TABLE B

(Eniwetok dates and times - 180th meridian)

TIME DATE

25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

0000 213 234 279 301 316 340 357 380 402 423 445

0015 214 235 280 317 341 358 381 403 424 446

0245 215 236 257 281 302 318 342 359 382 404 425 447

0300 216 237 258 282 319 360 383 405 426 448

0315 217 238 259 283 320 343 361 384 406 427

O545 218 239 260 284 303 321 362 385 407 428 449

0600 219 240 261 285 304 322 344 363 386 408 429 450

0615 220 241 262 305 323 345 364 387 409 430 451

0845 221 242 263 286 306 324 365 388 410 431

0900 222 243 264 287 307 325 366 389 411 432

0915 223 244 265 288 308 326 346 367 390 412 433

1145 201 224 245 266 309 327 347 368 391 434

1200 202 225 246 267 289 310 328 348 369 392 413

1215 203 226 247 268 290 329 370 393 414 435

1445 204 227 248 269 291 330 371 394 436

1500 205 249 270 292 331 349 372 395 415 437

1515 206 250 271 293 311 332 373 396 416 438

1745 207 228 251 272 294 333 350 374 417 439

1800 208 252 273 295 334 351 375 397 418

1815 209 229 253 274 296 335 352 398 419 440

2045 230 254 275 297 312 336 353 376 441

2100 210 231 255 276 298 313 337 354 377 399 420 442

2115 211 232 256 277 299 314 338 355 378 400 421 443

2345 212 233 278 300 315 339 356 379 401 422 444

* Blanks indicate no photograph was obtained.

152

PLACE: BRUCE

INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES A,

AUGUST 21 - 31, 1957**

(Degrees show direction in which camera was pointecL)

TABLE C

HOUR:**

0600

0900

1200

1500

1800

DATE

21

0655:
331°

B2-9*

241°
331°

B3-3*

B3-4

241°
331°

B3-5

B3-6

241°
331°

B3-7
B3-8

22

0645:
241°

B3-11

241°

B3-12

241°
331°

B4-1*
B4-2

241°
331°

B4-3
B4-4

241°
331°

B4-5
B4-6

23

0645:
241°
331°

B4-7*
B4-8

241°
331°

B4-9
B4-10*

241°
331°

B4-11
B4-12

241°
331°

B4-13
B4-14

24

0645:
241°
331°

B4-15
B4-16

241°
331°

B4-17*
B4-18*

241°

B4-19

241°
331°

B5-1
B5-2

241°
331°

B5-3
B5-4*

25

0620:
241°
331°

B5-5*
B5-6*

331°

B5-11*

241°
331°

B5-12*
B5-13*

241°
310°
331°

B5-14
B5-16
B5-15

26

No photographs available

27

No photographs available

28

241° B7-14*
331° B7-15*

241° B7-7*
331° B7-8*

29

30

0645:

241° B7-5
331° B7-6

200° B7-2
241° B7-3

0945:

60° B8-L2

241° B8-14

331° B8-13

241° B8-10*
331° B8-9

241° B8-8*
331° B8-7*

241°
331°

58-6
B8-5

31

0645:

241° B8-4"
331° B8-3*

241°
331°

B8-2*
B8-1*

■K-ii-

Quality fair only<>

In requesting photographs listed above, be certain to refer to A Series .
The 3-hourly times given at the top of the columns apply except where
other times are entered.

153

PLACE:

KEITH INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES A,

AUGUST 18 - 31, 1957**
(Degrees show direction in which camera was pointedo)

TABLE D

HOUR:***

t 0600

0900

1200

1500

1800

DATE
18

61° Kl-1
151° Kl-2

61° Kl-5
151° Kl-6

61° Kl-8
151° Kl-11

19

0630:

61° Kl-12
151° Kl-13

61° Kl-17
151° Kl-18

20

1210:

61° K2-2
151° K2-3

1510:

61° K2-5
151° K2-4

1810:

61° K2-6

21

0910:

61° K2-8
151° K2-9

61° K2-10

61° K2-12*
151° K2-13

61° K2-14*
151° K2-15*

22

0640:

61° K2-16*
151° K2-17*

0900:

61° K3-9*
151° K3-8*

•

23

40° K5-1*
151° K5-2

61° K5-3

24

25

26
27
28
29
30
31

No photographs available

61°
151°

K6-20*
K6-19*

61°
151°

K6-18*
K6-17*

61°
151°

K6-16*
K6-15*

0655:
61°
151°

K6-14
K6-13

61° K6-12
151° K6-11

61°
151°

K6-9*
K6-10*

61°
151°

K6-6
K6-5

61°

K7-2*

0700:
61°
151°

K7-4*
K7-5

61-
151°

K7-6
K7-7

61°
151°

K7-8
K7-9*

151°

K7-11

0650:
61°

K7-12

61°
151°

K8-2
K8-1

0645:
61°
151°

K8-4
K8-3*

61° K8-6*
151° K8-5

61°
151°

K8-8
K8-7*

61°
151*

K8-10
K8-9

61°

151°

K8-12
K8-11

0700:
61°
151°

K8-14
K8-13

61° K8-16*

61°
151°

K9-11*
K9-10*

61°
151°

K9-9
K9-8

30°

61°

151°

K9-5
K9-7
K9-6*

0645:
61°
151°

K9-4
K9-3

61° K9-2
151° K9-1*

* Quality fair only.
** In requesting photographs
■** The 3-hour lv times eiven t

listed above, be
it the tOD of the

certain
columns

to refer
aonlv exc

to A Series.
:eDt where

other times are entered.

154

PLACE: BRUCE

INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES B,
JANUARY 29 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958**
(Degrees show direction in which camera was pointed.)

TABLE E

HOUR:***

0900

1200

1500

1800

DATE
29

30

31

241°
331°

B2-8*
B2-9*

241° B2-16*
331° B2-17

241°
331°

B2-24*
B2-25*

280°
331°

B3-7*
B3-8

241°
331°

B3-15
B3-16

241°
331°

B3-24
B3-23

241°
331°

B4-1
B4-2*

0830:
241° B4-9
331° B4-10

200°
241°
331°

B4-18*

B4-16

B4-17

241°
331°

B2-1
B2-3

241°
331°

B2-10
B2-11

241°
331°

B2-18
B2-19

241°
331°

B2-26*
B2-27*

241°
331°

B3-1*
B3-2

241°
331°

B3-9
B3-10

241°
331°

B3-18
B3-17

241°
331°

B3-26
B3-25

241°
331°

B4-3*
B4-5

241°

B4-U

241°
331°

B2-4
B2-5

241°
331°

B2-12
B2-13

241°
331°

B2-20
B2-21

241°
331°

B2-28
B2-29

241°
331°

B3-3
B3-4

241°
331°

B3-11
B3-12

241°
331°

B3-20
B3-19*

241°
331°

B3-28*
B3-27*

241°
331°

B4-6
B4-8

241°
331°

B4-13*
B4-14

241°
331°

B2-6
B2-7

241° B2-14
331° B2-15

241° B2-22
331° B2-23

241° B2-30
331° B2-31

250° B3-5
331° B3-6

241° B3-13
331° B3-14

241° B3-22
331° B3-21

241°
331°

B3-30
B3-29*

331° B4-15*

* Quality fair only,,
** In requesting photographs listed above, be certain to refer to B Series ■
*** The 3-hourly times given at the top of the columns apply except where
other times are entered <=

155

PLACE : KEITH

INDEX NUMBERS FOR CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS, SERIES B,
JANUARY 25 - FEBRUARY 8, 1958**
(Degrees show direction In which camera was pointed.)

TABLE F

HOUR:

0900

1200

1500

1800

DATE

25

61°

Kl-2*

151°

Kl-1

151° Kl-3*

26

61°

Kl-4

61°

Kl-6

61°

Kl-8

61°

Kl-10*

151°

Kl-5

151°

Kl-7

151°

Kl-9

151°

Kl-11*

27

61° Kl-15

61°

Kl-17

61°

Kl-19

151°

Kl-16*

151°

Kl-18

151°

Kl-20

28

61°

Kl-26*

61°

Kl-29

61°

Kl-31

151°

Kl-28

151°

Kl-30

151°

Kl-32

29

70°

K2-28

50°

K2-26

50°

K2-23

190°

K2-27

140°

K2-25

140°

K2-24

140°

K2-22

30

50°

K2-21

50°

K2-19

50° K2-17

50°

K2-15

140°

K2-20

140°

K2-18

140°

K2-16*

140°

K2-14

31

50°

K2-13

70°

K2-10

70°

K2-8

70°

K2-6

140°

K2-12

160°

K2-11

160°

K2-9

160°

K2-7

i-i

40°

K2-5

70°

K2-4

70° K2-2
160° K2-1

160° K2-3

50° K3-33
140° K3-32

140 u K3-31*

50 u K3-30
140° K3-29

50 K3-28
140° K3-27

50" K3-26
140° K3-25

50 u K3-24*
140° K3-23*

50° K3-22
140° K3-21

50° K3-20
140° K3-19

50° K3-17
140° K3-18

50° K3-15*
140° K3-16*

50" K3-13
140° K3-14

50 K3-2
110° K3-1
140° K3-3

50° K4-1
140° K4-2

50° K4-3

50° K4-5

140° K4-4

140° K4-6

50° K4-7
140° K4-8

50 K4-9
170° K4-10

* Quality fair only.
** In requesting photographs listed above, be certain to refer to B Series,

156

APPENDIX III .
BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTE : The following bibliography is not intended to
be comprehensive. Rather it lists works cited in this
publication together with a few additional items that
may prove particularly useful to those analyzing the
data presented in this study.

A. For general information on geology, hydrography, and geography ;

(1) Emery, Kenneth 0., "Submarine Geology of Bikini Atoll," Bull. GSA . LIX, 855-60, 1948.

(2) Emery, Kenneth 0., J. I. Tracey, Jr., and H. S. Ladd, "Geology of Bikini and Nearby

Atolls," Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-A , Washington: GPO, 1954.

(3) Gordon, Jr., A. R., Digest of Oceanographic Data for the Marshall Islands Area . U. S.

Navy Hydrographic Office (duplicated), March, 1956.

(4) U. S. Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Tide Tables 1958 . "Central

and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean." Washington: GPO.

(5) U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Sailing Directions for The Pacific Islands . I (H.O.

Pub. No. 165A), Washington: GPO, 1952.

B. For meteorological data and discussions of the weather and climate of the Marshall Islands

area :

(l) Reports by Joint Task Force Meteorological Center:

(a) JTFMC TP-1 Meteorological Report on Operation REDWING

Volume 1, Eniwetok
15 Nov 1956

(b) JTFMC TP-5 A Study of the 30,000 Foot Wind Field over the West

Central Pacific
20 Dec 1957

(c) JTFMC TP-8 Meteorological Report on Operation HARDTACK

Volumes 1-6
March- July 1958

(d) JTFMC TP-15 A Study of the Mean Vertical Wind Structure over the

Eniwetok Proving Ground Area
8 May 1959

157

NOTE ; There are several other JTFMC reports that provide marginal information
that may be of interest. For a list of these and of reports issued since
February 1, I960, inquiry may be made to: JTF-7 Meteorological Center,
c/o Fleet Weather Central, FPO 128, San Francisco, California.

(2) U. S. Weather Bureau, Climatological Data, Hawaii and Climatological Data, Pacific .

Prior to 1956, daily rainfall and temperature reports for stations in the
Marshall Islands appeared in CD, Hawaii ; thereafter they have appeared in
CD. Pacific .

(3) U. S. Weather Bureau, Local Climatological Data. Ma.1uro <> This provides fairly de-

tailed climatologic data in monthly and annual summary form.

(4) Central Meteorological Observatory, Climatic Records of Japan and the Far East Area .

Tokyo: CMO, 1954. This provides mean monthly data for the period of Japanese
occupancy of the Marshall Islands.

(5) Mitteilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten .

various volumes, 1906-1914* Gives daily rainfall values for stations in
Micronesia.

(6) Schott, Gerhard, "Klimakunde der Sudsee-Inseln, M Handbuch der Klimatologie . IV, Part

T, Berlin, 1938.

(7) Tullman, Hubert, Die Niederschlagsverhaltnisse der Sudsee-Inseln: Archiv der

Deutschen Seewarte . LVI, nr. 5« Hamburg.

C. The references cited above (especially the first three items) provide data that can be used
to compile frequency distributions for meteorological variables in the Marshall Islands
area. Types of distributions common in meteorology are discussed in the following:

(1) Brooks, C. E. P. and N. Carruthers, Handbook of Statistical Methods in Meteorology .

M. 0. 538. London, 1953.

(2) Panofsky, Hans A. and Glenn W. Brier, Some Applications of Statistics to Meteorology .

Perm. State Univ., 1958.

158

FIGURES AND PLATES

4tf

ll°N \V

K

SOUTH WEST
PASSAGE

870
20'

5'

1

"^k^

FIGURE 1. ENIWETOK ATOLL,
showing gross reef and islet
features. Depths in fathoms.
(Based on U.SJiO. Chart 6033.)

a 32

'«[®]MACK . . flr

L — * 14 A

« >° v I

17 BR*?

33 32

32*13"

YVONNE

1 p-
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SOUTH WEST
PASSAGE

21 a 24 M

9
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500 WIDE PASSAGE M0

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•40
162" IS' E

360 " w rao
HIWETOK I.

FRED

400 660 • M

■ ■ 1 1 I I I

I

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182 oo'e

FIGURE 2. BATHYRITHMS, ENIWETOK LAGOON. Values are in fathoms below
mean low tide. (Generalized bathyrithms, omitting coral heads and
other details, adapted from Emery, Bull. GSA., LIX, 858.)

I6Z"00' E

10"

20'

FIGURE 3- BATHYRITHMS IN THE VICINITY OP ENIWETOK. Depths are shown
In fathoms below mean low tide. 500 fathom Interval. (Based on
Emery, Tracy, and Ladd, USG3 Prof. Paper 260-A.)

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FIGURE 4. MEAN MONTHLY EAST-WEST WIND COMPONENTS, ENIWETOK,
AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE. Values in m.p.h., with west wind
components positive. E T : tradewind flow; W : upper
westerly flow; E E : equatorial easterlies; E : Krakatoa

K

easterlies; W fi : Berson westerlies. (Based on twice-daily
soundings, 1949 through 1958, and on additional soundings
during test periods. From JTFMC TP-20.)

FIGURE 5-A. SURFACE WATER CURRENTS IN BIKINI LAGOON
WITH AN ENE WIND. North is at the top of the map.
Arrows show the flow pattern. (After A. R. Gordon, Jr.)

*s *s

FIGURE 5-B. SURFACE WATER CURRENTS IN BIKINI LAGOON

WITH A SE WIND. North is at the top of the map.

Arrows show the flow pattern. (After A. R. Gordon, Jr.)

155

160

165

170

175

E 180 W

175

JANUARY

AUGUST

FIGURE 6. SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURES IN JANUARY AND AUGUST.
Temperatures in °F. (From Emery, Tracy, and Ladd.)

ENIWETOK ISLAh

BENCH MARK LOCATIC

11° 20' 38" N
162° 20' E

FIGURE 8. MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, ELMER.

MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM, BRUCE.

I

N

JANET

o

YVONNE

1/2 Mil V

j | MILE

FIGURE 10. SKETCH MAPS OP JANET AND YVONNE ISLETS. Maps
are approximate only. Scale correct within 15$. Raingage
locations shown by "X". For positions of islets on the
reef, see Figure 1.

d

4

I

PLATFORM NO. 3

PLATFORM NO. 2

PLATFORM NO. I

[pjh^

LIVING QUARTERS

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1 11 , , II L

SI

(PLATFORM LOCATION'

II'32'35"N-I6E*I4 , S0"E)

—WATER THERMOGRAPH

INSTRUMENT SHELTER

FIGURE 12. TOWER LAYOUT, SITE MACK.

PREPONDERANT VEGETATION

msum

Scaevola

Messerschmidia

Pi son i a

Scaevola -Chaparral

N 40,500

Barren

VEGETATION HEIGHT
A ND GROWTH HAB IT

HHH High shrub under

coconut; 20-25 mete

Pi son i a forest
10-15 meters

High shrub

I- 5 meters

High shrub & chaparr

1—5 meters

Open beach

INSERT MAP

@Clumps of
Scaevola;(height
shown in meters)

©Anemometer

^Shelter

©Raingage

50

JJLW ■ ■ =

Scale

100

N 41.000

PREPONDERANT VEGETATIO N

I Scaevola
Messerschmidia
Pisonia

Scaevola -Chaparral
Barren

MWm. coconut; 20-25meters
Pisonia forest
10-15 meters
1 High shrub
^ I- 5 meters

High shrub 8 chaparral
:" 1-5 meters

[ | Open beach

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FIGURE 13 VEGETATION, KEITH ISLET

400'

Scale

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SIT E B, RAINGAGE STATI ON

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limMt Ipomeo

s Coconut palm

® Raingage
© Anemometer
3> Instrument shelter
Figures show heights in meters.

HEIGHT

M9S&. High shrub under coconut
Mmm I to5 meters; 7to25 meter

High- shrub-l to5 meters.

Beach and low vegetation,
or barren.

PREPONDERANT VEGETATION

Messerschmidio

$m Scaevola

Remainder mixed except
for barren areas.

FIGURE 14 VEGETATION, BRUCE ISLET

400'

PLATE I-A. WEATHER INSTRUMENTS, BRUCE Islet, ocean side location.
Above : Shelter, anemometer, and raingage, looking east (toward ocean).
Below ; Same, looking west (down old runway toward lagoon).

/

PLATE I-B. RAINGAGE, BRUCE Islet, lagoon side location.
Above : Looking east (toward ocean). Below ; Looking west
(toward lagoon).

Above ; Anemometer and
shelter, looking SSW
(toward ocean) • Rain-
gage is to right beyond
shelter.

Right: Anemometer mast,
showing barren nature of
surrounding ground and
looking SWo

PLATE II. WEATHER INSTRUMENTS, KEITH Islet.

PLATE III. TYPICAL RADARSCOPE VIEWS.
Range: 75 miles. North is at the top
of the scopeo

i

*

I

PLATE IV. REPRESENTATIVE CLOUD PICTURES. The two
shown were taken from KEITH Islet, January, 1958.

I 1

i • 7 3
tJlPZ/'ls Nos. 72, 73, 74

October 15, I960

ATOLL RESEARCH
BULLETIN

72- Report on Tarawa Atoll, Gilbert Islands
by Edwin Doran, Jr.

~J3' Some aspects of Agriculture on Tarawa Atoll,
Gilbert Islands

by R. R. Mason

7 4- Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony
by Peter Child

Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council
Washington, D. C, U.S.A.

\

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

72. Report on Tarawa Atoll, Gilbert Islands

by Edwin Doran, Jr.

73 • Some aspects of agriculture on Tarawa Atoll, -
Gilbert Islands

by R. R. Mason

7^. Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony

by Peter Child

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D- C
October 15, i960

/

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office
of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of
which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll
Program of the Pacific Science Board.

It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda-
mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S.
Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago,
under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of
such scientific interest by the Navy is sho^n by the support for the
Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past thirteen years,

The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is
assisted by funds from Contract N7onr-2300(l2) .

Bulletin No. 72, Report on Tarawa, was originally duplicated by
the U. S. Navy for limited internal distribution. In order to make
this information more widely available to those interested in Pacific
Atolls the Navy has considerately made the report available for distri-
bution as an Atoll Research Bulletin.

The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of
papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not
necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of
the editors of the Bulletin.

Editorial Staff

F. R. Fosberg, editor

M.-H. Sachet, assistant editor

Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be
addressed to the above

c/o Pacific Science Board

National Research Council

2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W.

Washington 25, D. C, U.S.A.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 72

Report on Tarawa Atoll, Gilbert Islands

"by

Edwin Dor an, Jr.

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C
October 15, i960

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

Location and Size

Topography

Hydrography

Climate 1

Biota 1

OWNERSHIP AND POLITICAL STABILITY 12

POPULATION AND CULTURAL ATTITUDES 15

LAND USE AND OWNERSHIP 15

FACILITIES AVAILABLE 24

Transportation 24

Sea 24

Air 36

Land 36

Meteorology 42

Communications 42

Storage 42

Utilities 47

Water Supply 47

Electric Power Supply 47

Sewage and Waste Disposal 48

Maintenance Facilities 48

Fire Protection 48

Police Protection 48

Housekeeping Facilities and Personal Services 49

Quarters and Food Supply 49

Medical and Dental Care

Laundry and Cleaning Services 49

Religion 53

Education 53

Recreation 53

Construction 53

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIXES

Appendix A. Vegetation of Gilbert Islands A-l

Appendix B. Key Personnel of Gilbert and Ellice Islands Government B-l

Appendix C. Population of Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony C-l

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Page

APPENDIXES (Cont'd)

Appendix D. Some Avoidances to Be Observed in Relations With Natives D-l

Appendix E. Communications in Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony E-l

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Map of Tarawa Atoll 3

Figure 2. Schematic Constitution of an Atoll 5

Figure 3. Aerial View of Islet Between Bairiki and Nanikai in Tarawa Atoll

at Low Tide When Passage Between Islands Is Traversable by

Motor Vehicles 6

Figure 4. Typical Conspicuous Features of an Atoll and Its Peripheral Reef 7

Figure 5. Record of Tidal Level in Betio Harbor Basin for Period of

3 to 7 March 1958 10

Figure 6. Idealized Section of Ghyben-Herzburg (Fresh Water) Lens in

an Oceanic Island 11

Figure 7. Physiognomic and Economic Cross-Section of a Typical Island

in Tarawa Atoll 13

Figure 8. Secretariat for Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Headquarters

of Resident Commissioner) at Bairiki on Tarawa Atoll 14

Figure 9. Map of Betio Area on Tarawa Atoll 17

Figure 10. Map of Bairiki Area on Tarawa Atoll 19

Figure 11. Map of Bikenibeu Area on Tarawa Atoll 21

Figure 12. Typical Village on Island in Tarawa Atoll 23

Figure 13. Map of Bonriki Area on Tarawa Atoll 25

Figure 14. Aerial View of Betio Harbor (Looking Southeast) 27

Figure 15. Map of Betio Harbor 29

Figure 16. Boatyard and Ways Operated at Betio by the Wholesale Society 31

Figure 17. Boat Dock at Bairiki, With Launches Alongside and Dragline

Working on Harbor Construction in Background 32

Figure 18. Map of Bairiki Harbor 33

Figure 19. Unused Mole Near West End of Bonriki Airstrip (Looking Inland

From Outer End of Mole in Temaiku Bight) 35

Figure 20. Interisland Transport Ships Operated by Gilbert and Ellice Islands

Colony (From Left to Right: Nareau, Te Matapula, and Ninikoria) 35

Figure 21. Aerial View of Bonriki Airfield 37

Figure 22. Surface of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Eastward) 37

Figure 23. Central Portion of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Northward) 38

Figure 24. West End of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Northward) 38

Figure 25. Slightly Wider Area at West End of Runway at Bonriki Airfield

(Looking Southeast) (Note Truck With Fire Extinguisher at

Extreme Left) 39

Figure 26. Map of Seaplane Landing Area North of Bairiki and Nanikai

Islands Used by Royal New Zealand Air Force 40

Figure 27. Land Rover in Passage Between Islands at Low Tide 41

Figure 28. Map of U. S. Meteorological Station at Betio 43

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Page

ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Figure 29. Aerial View of Meteorological Station at Betio 44

Figure 30. Buildings in Meteorological Station at Betio 44

Figure 31. Transmitter Building at Betio 45

Figure 32. Nissen Building Used as Warehouse Near Dock at Bairiki 46

Figure 33. Open Storage Area for Petroleum Products at Betio 46

Figure 34. Grade D Government Housing Occupied by Gilbertese

Couple in Foreground 50

Figure 35. Royal New Zealand Air Force Quarters at Bairiki (Quarters for

Enlisted Men in Center, With Officers' Quarters at Extreme

Right and Cook House at Extreme Left) 50

Figure 36. Map of Royal New Zealand Air Force Facility at Bairiki 51

Figure 37. King George V School at Bikenibeu (Assembly Hall at Right

and Administration Building at Left) 52

,

173*00*

1 S

1 I 3

STATUTE WILES
Figure 1. Map of Tarawa Atoll.

OCEAN

Taken from Atoll Research Bulletin No. 59.

Figure 2. Schematic Constitution of an Atoll.

around much of the atoll (figure 3). Bordering the land on both seaward and lagoon sides are con-
tinuous expanses of fringing reef, bare at low tide and covered with shallow water at high tide.
These Tarawa reefs are often 400 to 700 yards wide on both the inner and outer sides of islands.

It should be noted that no type of rock other than limestone is exposed in the Gilbert Islands.
The form of the rock may vary, however, from solid skeletons of corals cemented with various lime-
secreting algae into a solid limestone platform, to sands and gravels created by erosion, comminu-
tion, and subsequent deposition of fragments of corals and algae.

Although hills are completely absent and maximum elevations above sea level are on the order
of 20 feet, there is nevertheless a certain irregularity in atoll terrain (figure 4). Near the water on
the ocean side, there typically is found a beach ridge, with steeper slopes toward the sea and more
gentle declivities inland toward the center of the island. Elevations in the interior may be as
little as 2 to 5 feet, from which a gentle slope again rises to a somewhat higher crest in the
vicinity of the lagoon beach. Gradients on the lagoon side are gentle, and the slight elevation
above the interior of the island is hardly noticeable. Even the slope down to the edge of the water,
the inner side of the lagoon fringing reef, is quite gentle.

On the ocean sides of islands, beaches are moderately steep and are formed of fairly coarse
gravel-sized fragments of corals thrown up by the waves. On the lagoon sides, beach materials
are finer grained, often approaching a powdery sand in consistency. Where little wave action is
found, as in Temaiku Bight within the southeast angle of the atoll, the sediments that accumulate
are fine grained and form extensive flats of light-colored mud.

The reef flats that fringe the land on both ocean and lagoon sides of islets are formed by
dead corals with thin layers of mud or debris spread over them and occasional boulders scattered
about as relicts of storm waves in the past. Bare at low tide and often with a somewhat unpleasant

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- - Taken from Aloll Research Bulletin No.

smell from the decomposition of countless tiny organisms stranded by the low water, the reef flats
are covered with several feet of water at high tide. Small wavelets ripple across them and lap up
on the beaches after the main force of the waves is broken on the offshore reef slopes.

The oceanward reef margins drop off steeply into the depths, with slopes often as great as 45
degrees. Conditions for coral growth are optimal, and the offshore slope is blanketed with a pro-
fuse growth of many varieties. Elongated surge channels, oriented at right angles to the shoreline,
give a striped appearance to the reef margin when viewed from the air. In the lagoon, the reefs
drop off less steeply, and descend only a short distance to the bottom. The Tarawa lagoon has an
average depth of only 6 to 8 fathoms.

Hydrography

Offshore slopes, from the fringing reef down into deep water, are so steep around most of
Tarawa that ships cannot possibly anchor. The exception to this statement is a small shelving
area just off the lagoon entrance on the west side of the atoll in which ships can find anchorage.

The Tarawa lagoon is relatively shallow, in comparison with many atolls, and has depths
ranging from a few fathoms to a maximum of about 12 fathoms in restricted areas. Many coral
knolls rise near the surface, particularly in the portion of the lagoon southeast of Bikeman Island.
The only part of the lagoon that is usable by ships and seaplanes lies southwest of a line drawn
from Banreaba village (Eita Island) through Bikeman Island. Although in this area the most
dangerous pinnacles have been marked, the HMS COOK, a Royal Navy survey vessel, is now
resurveying all obstacles.

The average tidal range at Tarawa is about 4 feet, but the difference between high and low
tides during spring tidal periods is 5.6 feet and during neaps is 1.8 feet (see figure 5). The datum
used for the rather short periods of tidal measurement is a U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey bench-
mark on Betio Island, on which the low water spring level is marked. The maximum tide measured
thus far on Tarawa occurred on 11 December 1958 and reached 8.05 feet above datum; the minimum
measured tide reached 1.0 feet below datum, thus indicating a maximum recorded tidal range of
more than 9.0 feet. (An extremely low and irregular tide was a major contributory cause of the
great number of casualties suffered by the U. S. Marines in their landing on Betio in November
1943.)

Little information is available on currents in the Tarawa area. It is known, however, that a
coastwise current sets east on the south side of the lagoon, past-Betio, Bairiki, and Teaoraereke,
a fact documented by small spits built eastward from the Betio and Bairiki moles and, on a larger
scale, by the long e?stward-stretching spit shape of the two islets themselves. The current in the
main entrance channe' into the lagoon has a strength of 1.0 to 1.5 knots, changes in direction with
the ebb and flow of the tide, but is no great problem to shipping since it follows the channel axis
closely.

Because of the small size of islands, low elevation, and porosity of the coral bedrock, there
is no surface stream anywhere on the atoll. The lens of fresh water which accumulates and floats
above the salt water, as a ground water table on each islet, must be mentioned as an important
source of fresh water (figure 6). The lens tends to be much thicker and to contain fresher water in
the centers of islets, whereas on the lagoon and ocean sides and at the long narrow ends of islands,
the lens tends to decrease in thickness and to contain a greater amount of brackish or salt water.

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SALT WATER

Taken from Military Geography of Northern Marshalls.

Figure 6. Idealized Section of the Ghyben-Herzburg (Fresh Water) Lens in an Oceanic Island.

Although excessive use of the fresh water may disturb the lens, and long periods of drought will
cause it to gradually disappear, it must be emphasized as a significant source of water on islands
notable for their water shortage.

Climate

Tarawa lies in close proximity to the equator and has a typical oceanic equatorial climate,
characterized by mildness and uniformity of temperatures but a considerable variation in rainfall.
Throughout the year, afternoon mean temperatures are in the high 80's and nighttime low figures
are about 76 degrees; temperatures over 95 and under 68 almost never occur, and the very consis-
tent easterly winds moderate the heat and provide a pleasant sensible temperature. The mean
annual rainfall is 64 inches, a somewhat deceptive figure since the recorded range of annual rain
is from 15 inches (1950) to 115 inches (1948); droughts are a matter of periodic concern in the
Central Gilbert Islands.

Wind directions are generally from east or southeast, with speeds in winter (February) averag-
ing 17 knots, in summer about 10 knots. Although many typhoons originate close by, to the north
and west of the Gilberts, none has ever been recorded at Tarawa. Both overcast and cloud-free
days are rare, and the normal situation is a scattered-to-broken system of tradewind woolpack
clouds, often building up as thunderheads over lagoons or during the warmer afternoon period.

Biota

The vegetation of Tarawa may be described in simplest terms as a man-made forest of coconut
palms, planted wherever they will grow. Without question, the coconut palm is the dominant and
most characteristic plant on the atoll. Although in the interior the coconut palms grow vertically,
reaching heights of 60 to 90 feet fbove the ground and casting such a dense shade that other plants

11

often grow beneath them only with considerable effort, along the ocean and lagoon shores they
lean out toward the light in long and graceful curves, in places actually extending out over the
water. Other plants, of course, are present on the atoll, one of the most characteristic being the
salt bush, Scaevola, which occurs in profusion on the ocean beach ridges and to a lesser extent
on the lagoon side or sparsely scattered among the coconuts. Pandanus, with its curious stilt-like
maze of stems, is found where light is adequate; it provides both food and excellent thatch to the
natives. A few larger trees such as Pisonia and Calophyllum, with its large symmetrical glossy
leaves, are scattered through the interiors of the islets. Mangroves are found near the lagoon
where mud flats provide a favorable situation; their intertwined stilt roots create almost impene-
trable swamps.

The diagram of figure 7 illustrates some of these relationships, and. appendix A presents
details of the plants found on Tarawa.

Animal life on Tarawa, if domestic cats and dogs are excluded, is restricted to small lizards
and rats, but fish of a wide variety are caught in the open ocean and particularly in the lagoon. A
detailed listing of species is to be found in Randall* (1955).

Bird life on Tarawa is largely restricted to sea birds. Graceful white terns, noddies, gannets,
and the piratical frigate-bird,, long tailed tropic birds, shearwaters, and petrels make up the domi-
nant types. A few land birds migrate through the Gilberts and. are to be seen occasionally.

OWNERSHIP AND POLITICAL STABILITY

Tarawa Atoll is a part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony of the United Kingdom. The
colony, which is under the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, at Honiara,
Guadalcanal, is administered by a Resident Commissioner, whose headquarters are located in the
Secretariat at Bairiki, Tarawa (figure 8). For administrative purposes, the colony is subdivided
into four districts (Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Ocean Island, Line Islands, and Phoenix Islands),
each of which is administered by a District Commissioner. The office of the District Commissioner
for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands is maintained at Betio, ,3 miles west of Bairiki.

The Resident Commissioner of the Colony, Mr. M. L. Bernacchi, was on leave at the time of
the author's visit in August 1959. His office was occupied by Mr. R. Davies, Acting Resident
Commissioner, whose regular position is Secretary to Government. Appendix B lists key personnel
of the colony and their acting and regular positions in the government.

The Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony has as much political stability as perhaps any colony
under the British flag. Although a serious strike occurred on Ocean Island in 1948, no such
incident has occurred since, and it would appear that political unrest may be considered non-
existent at Tarawa.

See Selected Bibliography herein.

12

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14

POPULATION AND CULTURAL ATTITUDES

The Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony is unusual because the Gilbert Islands are inhabited
by Micronesian people whereas the Ellice Islands have a Polynesian population. The nearly 5,000
Polynesians are a minority in the colony as compared with the nearly 37,000 Gilbertese. With 576
Caucasians and some 81 Chinese added, the population of the colony at the end of 1958 was
estimated at 42,546.

As the seat of government, Tarawa has had a notable influx of population, particularly since
World War II, and now has a population of 7,125 persons, of whom 141 are Caucasians. Most of
the population is Gilbertese, but a considerable number of Ellice Islanders also live on the atoll.
The greatest concentrations of people, including most of the Caucasians, live on the southern rim
of the atoll at Betio, Bairiki, or Bikenibeu. Figures 9, 10, and 11 are maps of these areas.

Details of the colony's population, by islands, and of population trends from 1931 to 1958 will
be found in appendix C.

The available labor force in Tarawa and neighboring atolls is rather sizeable. Above the
needs of the communities themselves, some 300 laborers are available from Tarawa alone, and
with short notice it is possible to obtain 80 from Maiana, 250 from Abaiang, and 130 from Marakei,
neighboring atolls. Perhaps 2 per cent of these persons are semiskilled and of use as carpenters,
truck drivers, and such. Although the government itself cannot act as a recruiter of labor, a local
trading firm (Schultz and Wilder) might take a contract for recruiting as it has done in the past.
Unskilled labor is paid at the rate of 7 shillings per day (Australian currency, exchanged at $2.25
per pound) or £8/5/0 (8 pounds, 5 shillings, pence) per month. For long-term labor a more usual
arrangement is to pay 7 pounds per month and supply food and housing. A local part-Caucasian
person is usually desirable as labor boss because of his understanding of local customs and work
attitudes.

Certain Gilbertese cultural attitudes must be respected if good relations are to be maintained
with local people. Most of these are matters of courtesy common to most cultures; other are
localized attitudes. Natives are not allowed by law (voted by themselves) to drink alcoholic
beverages; hence, it is both illegal and ill-mannered to offer a native a drink. Since large physical
size and manual dexterity are greatly admired, it is persons with these qualities who are able to
deal most satisfactorily with the Gilbertese. A series of other local attitudes that are important
for the visitor to observe is emphasized by Sir Arthur Grimble (see appendix D), who learned them
during years of experience in the area.

LAND USE AND OWNERSHIP

A typical traverse of an islet on Tarawa would show coconut and pandanus occupying positions
from just landward of the ocean reef flat to the edge of the lagoon (figure 7). On the lagoon half
of the islet, babai pits (similar to taro pits) are commonly interspersed with the trees, which here
include breadfruit and some ornamental varieties.

Villages are characteristically on the lagoon side, as are the roads or tracks connecting them,
and generally contain from 15 to 50 houses constructed from palm and pandanus (figure 12). Each

15

BUILDINGS
EZS GRADE B QUARTERS
B GRADE C QUARTERS
■ GRADES D, E. AND F QUARTERS

Figure 9* Mop of Betfo Area on Tarawa Atoll.

17

H

PRISON

TIDAL FLAT
CROSSING TC
NANIKAI

O GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS

E3 GRADE B QUARTERS

E] GRADE C QUARTERS

□ GRADES D, E, AND F QUARTERS

SCALE (FEET)
100 100 200 300 400 500 M0 700 800 900 J.000

Figure 10i Map of Bairiki Area on Tarawa Atoll.

SCALE (STATUTE MILES)

19

X

Q GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS

E3 GRADE E3 QUARTERS

Q GRADE C QUARTERS

■ GRADES D, E, AND F QUARTERS

Figure 11. Map of Bikenibeu Area on Tarawa Atoll.

SCALE (STATUTE MILES)

21

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23

house customarily shelters one family, while the maneaba or community house, the largest structure
in the village, is the meeting place of the village leaders and is used for most manifestations of
native group life. Less frequently it serves as a temporary shelter for visitors.

With large populations and small land areas, the Gilbert Islands have quite high population
densities. Tarawa, for example, has a density of nearly 1,000 persons per square mile, and land
is at a premium. Parcels of land are subdivided often, and a person may hold several tiny bits,
scattered not only on various islets of an atoll but also on several different atolls. The typical
organization of people into villages, with lengthy stretches of coconut woodland lying between,
only serves to disguise a situation in which land is most valuable and often very difficult to
acquire. Purchase of land is possible only for natives themselves, and litigation over land is the
most common type of court action in the Gilberts.

Leasing of typical coconut land or bush land for governmental purposes is not a particularly
difficult problem but does require a fair amount of time (measured in months). The normal rental
fee is 3 pounds Australian per acre per year and, of course, is supplemented by payment for any
damage such as the cutting of trees.

A considerable area of Tarawa is currently under lease to the British government. All of
Bairiki and Nanikai Islands are leased, but the former is completely utilized by the Crown and
most of the latter probably will be soon. About 60 per cent of Betio Island is leased, but most of
the eastern spit, on which at present only scrub and a few coconuts grow, is unleased and vacant.
In the Bikenibeu area, Crown leasehold extends from the leprosarium east to the school and train-
ing college area, while at Bonriki only the airstrip itself and the adjacent causeway are under
Crown lease (figure 13).

FACILITIES AVAILABLE
Transportation

Sea

Deep-draft vessels cannot enter the Tarawa lagoon but may find anchorage in 12 to 20 fathoms
of water just west of the entrance; here they lie in what is normally the lee of the atoll in relative-
ly quiet water. The entrance channel to the lagoon has a least width of 1,000 feet and is deep
enough to permit vessels of 26-foot draft to enter the lagoon proper at any time; spring tides will
permit vessels drawing 28 feet to enter. Pilotage is available and, although not mandatory, is
usually taken by captains who do not have local knowledge. The channel itself and the anchorage
area of some 4 square nautical miles west and southwest of Bikeman Island have buoys or beacons
marking obstacles (chiefly coral pinnacles). No moorings exist, and vessels ride to their own
anchors.

At present, all cargo from ships of any size is taken ashore in lighters. Six barges, three
with flat tops and three open, are operated by the Wholesale Society and range in capacity from 20
to 40 tons. Some eight launches are in use by Government or Wholesale Society, of which three,
with lengths of 22 to 35 feet and engines powered at 20 to 40 horsepower, are capable of handling
the barges. With the use of the present system, it is estimated by the Marine Superintendent that
the cargo-handling capacity of the port is about 500 tons per day.

24

\

X

Figure 13. Map of Bonrlki Area oa Tarawa Atoll

The principal harbor at Tarawa is an artificial one on the north shore of Betio Island (figure 14).
A major project for harbor improvement, which is well advanced, will result in an entrance channel

-4-'

■'. \

Figure 14. Aerial View of Betio Harbor (Looking Southeast).

95 feet wide and 10 feet deep and an inner area 13 feet deep alongside the dock (figure 15). Some
300 feet of dock faced with sheet steel piling will have this 13-foot depth alongside, permitting
any colony vessel to remain tied up at any stage of the tide. When completed, the harbor area will
be well lighted, will have power lines and a transformer on the dock, and will have water lines for
docked vessels to fill their tanks. (The present system requires water to be taken offshore to
ships in a 15-ton capacity water barge.) Only one small 1-ton mobile crane is available at present,
and future plans call for ships to handle all cargo with their own gear.

Copra is the principal outgoing bulk cargo, and sugar and flour are the principal incoming bulk
cargoes; all of these are packed in sacks and handled manually. Repair facilities include the
Wholesale Society boatyard, which can overhaul vessels up to 35 feet in length and can perform
woodworking operations, replace planking, and the like. The Government Workshop nearby, which
has metal working equipment, can repair drive shafts and can overhaul engines (figure 16).

27

v^

NOTE: CHANNEL AND BASIN

DREDGED TO 10.0 FEET

BELOW LWOST.

WHARF LEVEL - 9.2 FEET.

SCALE (FEET)

Figure 15. Map of Betio Harbor.

TIMBBR STORE

1 ^ 3 OPFICBS d

Q WA7MOHR *

| | OPFKBS >.

\ -- 1

Figure 16. Boatyard and Ways Operated at Betio by the Wholesale Society.

Another portion of the harbor development scheme involves improvements to the boat harbor at
the northwest corner of Bairiki Island (figure 17). Principal characteristics of the new harbor may
be noted on figure 18. Since all connections between the colony headquarters at Bairiki and the
district headquarters and the commercial activity at Betio require boat travel, a system of daily
launch schedules, two boats each way, both in mornings and afternoons, has been set up to handle
the traffic. A 1-shilling fee discourages joy-riders on the launches.

The mole extending into Temaiku Bight from near the west end of the Bonriki airstrip is now
unused (figure 19).

Some nine ships, totalling 665 tons displacement, are in regular use in the colony for transpor-
tation among the islands (figure 20). They range in size from the 300-ton MOANA RAOI to the
10-ton FETUARO.

31

32

-V-rV

-22 FEET, INCH

MO FEET INCH

NOTE: CHANNEL AND BASIN
DREDGED TO 7.S FEET
BELOW LttOST

Figure 18. Map of Bairlkl Harbor.

\ <

Figure 19. Unused Mole Near West End of Bonriki Airstrip (Looking Inland From Outer End

of Mole in Temaiku Bight).

•:

Figure 20. Intel-island Transport Ships Operated by Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony
(From Left to Right: Nareau, Te Matapula, and Ninikoria).

35

Air

Of the several airfields constructed in the Gilbert Islands during World War II, only the one at
Bonriki, near the southeast corner of Tarawa Atoll, remains today. All others, including the former
Hawkins Field at Betio, have been replanted to coconuts and are completely unusable.

Bonriki Airfield today consists of one single runway, altitude 9 feet, oriented approximately
east-west (97°- 277° true) (figure 21). The runway is 7,100 feet long, each end terminating at the
water's edge without overrun. A certain amount of encroachment by coconuts and scrub has taken
place along both sides of the runway, particularly about the center of the south side, but a clear
width of 180 feet is still available for the entire length. The runway is made of compacted coral,
which is still in good condition despite little maintenance since the war (figure 22). The bearing
strength is unknown, but a 4-engine British aircraft landed on the strip in early 1959 and a
Grumman UF-type amphibian aircraft landed on it three times in August 1959. American C-54's
have used the field repeatedly in recent years.

The former fighter strip at Bonriki, extending northeast southwest and intersecting the main
runway, has been replanted in coconuts except for a poor road down the center. The southeast-
northwest taxiway, which formerly connected the easterly portions of the two strips, and the
extension of it, in a curve to west and south, which served as taxiway and parking strip, also have
been replanted except for a 2-lane automobile road down the center (figure 23). Thus, except for a
slightly wider area near the west end of the main airstrip, the airfield has no taxiways and no
parking area (figures 24 and 25).

Except for wind socks at each end of the runway, the airfield has no other facility. Communi-
cations from aircraft to the island are with the radio station at Betio. When enough notice is giveq,
a truck with soda-acid fire extinguishers is placed at the field to give some measure of fire
protection. Again, when proper notice is given, small quantities of 100-octane aviation gasoline
in drums can be made available at the field.

A seaplane landing area, used regularly by aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, is
laid out in the lagoon to the north of Bairiki Island. A map of the system of buoys marking coral
pinnacles and indicating the two principal directions for landing and takeoff is shown in figure 26.

Land

The road net on Tarawa consists of simple street networks at Betio and Bairiki and a road
extending from Bonriki to Bairiki with interruptions at the channels between islands. For about two
hours before and after each low tide, the water is low enough between islands for vehicles to
cross, and it can be said that at these times a road extends for some 15 miles along the south
side of the atoll (figure 27).

Most of the roads were constructed originally by the American forces during World War II.
They consist of compacted coral, ranging from 16 to 24 feet in width. They have been maintained
by use of a tractor-towed grader and toppings of reef mud in the chuck holes. The materials are
tamped by hand because no roller is available. The slight amount of traffic gives so little wear
that these rather simple maintenance methods suffice to keep the roads in good condition.

36

DEEP
WATER

C 'AUSE1VAY

-«.•'

Figure 21. Aerial View of Bonriki Airfield.

■ A; t - - - ' -* - - . «*^ .- . — ^r - . .^

%- ^-

Figure 22. Surface of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Eastward).

37

S - -746

•*«s*v

i. a c. n o n " i n fl a t

Figure 23. Central Portion of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Northward).

,'-

Figure 24. West End of Runway at Bonriki Airfield (Looking Northward).

7R

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39

1°20'15"

1°19'00"

172° 59' 15"

173° 00' 30"

<D BUOY

BEACON

© AIRCRAFT BUOYS

© FLASHING RED BEACON

i v> o
i i i i i i i i i i i_

STATUTE MILES

Figure 26. Map of Seaplane Landing Area North of Bairiki and Nanikai Islands
Used by Royal New Zealand Air Force.

40

- ■ v "
1 -

Figure 27. Land Rover in Passage Between Islands at Low Tide.

With the exception of 4 cars and 1 small truck at Betio, all vehicles on Tarawa are owned by
the Government or the Wholesale Society. The vehicles are listed as follows:

Total on
Island

3-Ton Truck

Land Rover

Car

Small
Truck

Ambulance

Betio

16

8

3

4

1

Bairiki

5

2

2

1

Bikenibeu

3

1

1

1

Total on Atoll

24

11

6

4

2

1

Maintenance of vehicles is performed at garages operated by the Wholesale Society or Govern-
ment at Bairiki and Betio. The Government Machine Shop at Betio can rebuild engines and perform
more complex repairs.

41

No true garage storage exists on the atoll, butshelters that keep off sun and rain exist for
most vehicles. A gasoline pump at Betio and drums at Bairiki and Bikenibeu supply fuel.

Mefeoro/ogy

All meteorological services for the colony are operated by the New Zealand Meteorological
Service as part of its responsibilities with the South Pacific Air Transport Command, the over-all
weather coordinating group for the South Pacific. Synoptic observations are made from 10 stations'
within the colony, of which Tarawa is one. Observations are made of temperature, pressure, pilot
balloon flights (Tarawa and Funafuti only), rainfall, and visual observations of wind speed, direc-
tion, visibility, and cloud types. Among the instruments at Tarawa are a recording rain gage,
recording barograph, and typical thermometers.

The colony staff consists of one European and 20 islanders; at Tarawa are the one European,
three observers, and two trainees. The observation schedule (local times) calls for
piball flights at 0530, 1030, 1630, and 2400; for synoptic observations at 0600, 0900, 1200, 1500,
and 1800; and for climatic data at 0900.

A United States meteorological station was maintained on Tarawa intermittently during 1951,
1954, 1956, and 1958 by personnel of Joint Task Force SEVEN. During these periods, rawinsonde
and radiosonde observations were taken two or four times daily. When the station was abandoned
in 1958, all the equipment was removed and only the buildings were left at the location. The map
(figure 28) and photographs (figures 29 and 30) present data on the past and present conditions of
this station.

Communications

Radio communications in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony are well developed, and
regular' schedules are maintained between Tarawa and Honiara, British Solomon Islands Protec-
torate, and with Nandi and Suva in Fiji. Within the colony, some 34 stations comprise a good
communications net and provide for ship-to+ shore or aircraft communications. On Tarawa, because
of the necessity for maintaining good communications between individual islands, with their several
government offices, a VHF system is maintained which connects Betio, Bairiki, and Bikenibeu.
The HF transmitting and receiving stations for Tarawa are located at Betio, toward the west end
of the island (figure 31). Considerable detailed technical information on the Tarawa radio commu-
nications is given in appendix E.

Very little telephonic communication is available on the atoll. Two 6-line intercom units are
utilized between various offices in the Secretariat at Bairiki, and a few field telephones connect
important points such as the Secretariat. Post Office, and dock area. Betio also has a few field
telephones connecting similar locations.

Storage

No open bulk storage facilities are specifically laid out on Tarawa. Although a reasonable
amount of space for storage is available, this space might not be in the immediate dock areas at
Betio and Bairiki, because these areas are relatively congested. In the Bonriki area, ample open
storage area is available close to the causeway and airfield.

42

NOTE THIS STATION IS
LOCATED IN A COCONUT GROVE

10 20 30 40
' I I I I 1 .

50

SCALE -FEET

100

_l

ISO

_J

Figure 28. Map of U. S. Meteorological Station at Betlo.

200

I

43

r-

Figure 29. Aerial View of Meteorological Station at Betio.

Figure 30. Buildings in Meteorological Station at Betio.

44

Figure 31. Transmitter Building at Betio.

Most covered storage or warehouse capacity on Tarawa is in the form of Nissen (Quonset-
type) buildings (figure 32). At Bairiki, five large Nissen warehouses (24 by 60 feet) are used for
governmental purposes, one covered shed (40 by 75 feet) is used for lumber storage, and a large
Wholesale Society store and storehouse are combined. Storage facilities at Betio comprise eight
large Nissen copra sheds or warehouses (40 by 100 feet), a customs shed (40 by 60 feet), about 10
smaller Nissen warehouses (20 by 100 feet), and a thatched timber storage area (about 30 by 50
feet). Most of this storage area is filled to capacity. Half or perhaps an entire copra shed (Nissen
hut, 40 by 100 feet) might be made available temporarily in case of emergency.

Refrigerated storage on Tarawa is limited to two 150-cubic-foot reefers at Betio, housed in a
24-by- 30-foot building. Another 300 cubic feet of storage is expected to be available by October
1959.

All petroleum products are now stored in drums at an open-storage area of 150 by 240 feet
(figure 33). However, plans are being considered for bulk storage of POL near the harbor, including
a 120,000-gallon tank for ship diesel fuel. Normal stocks of POL products in 55-gallon (U. S.)
drums, are maintained as follows:

100-octane aviation gasoline
Aviation lubrication oil
Automobile gasoline
Kerosene

55-Gallon Drums 5-Gallon Tins

200
6
300
400 60

45

Figure 32. Nissen Building Used as Warehouse Near Dock at Bairiki.

Figure 33. Open Storage Area for Petroleum Products at Betio.

46

55-Gallon Drums 5-Gallon Tins

Ship diesel oil 2,000

Ship lubrication oil 40

Denatured alcohol 80
Sundry specialized greases and oils

Ufilities

Water Supply

Water supply on Tarawa is a problem because of low and irregular rainfall, small land area,
and lack of surface streams or lakes. The basic source of water is the freshwater lens which
overlies the salt water in the substrata of each island. Wells are dug down to this water table.
Some 300 wells in all serve the general population for all purposes in the three areas of Betio,
Bairiki, and Bikenibeu. Well water is hard and tends to get progressively more brackish as a
drought period persists. Water trucks, filled from the larger wells, distribute water to the individ-
ual government house tanks several times a week.

All drinking water for the Caucasian population is rainwater obtained from catchments on the
individual houses. It is stored in an 800-gallon tank near each kitchen. Even this water is
filtered and boiled before it is used by most Caucasians. Three large cisterns at Bairiki and
Betio, which have a capacity in all of about 150,000 gallons, are used to store water obtained from
the government catchment areas.

During the periods in which the U. S. Meteorological Station on Betio was occupied, all of the
water used by the unit was distilled from sea water.

Electric Pouer Supply

The electrical systems installed on Tarawa have the following characteristics: 415 volts,
3 phases (or 240 volts, 1 phase), 50 cycles per second, with distribution on a 4-wire (3 phases
plus neutral) main line. Transformers are available which can provide 110 volts for small loads.

Betio is provided with two 82-kilowatt Ruston generators. The peak load is estimated at a
little more than 60 kilowatts, leaving one generator as standby. In addition, two 19-kilowatt
Southern Cross generators are used as emergency standby equipment for the radio communications
facility.

Bairiki has an 82-kilowatt main generator and a 69-kilowatt standby generator. Bikenibeu
has an 82-kilowatt main generator, a 10-kilowatt standby generator for emergencies in the opera-
ting room at the hospital, and a 75-kilowatt generator on order which will be used as a standby.

In addition to the government offices, shops, docks, radio station, and other users, power is
distributed to government housing at the three main government centers. Both Betio and Bairiki
have service for about 18 hours per day; Bikenibeu has service for about 12 hours per day.

47

Sewage and Waste Disposal

Sewage from all Government Grade 3 (Caucasian) and Grade C (top native employees) housing
is disposed of in individual septic tank systems, one for each house. All other persons on the
atoll use latrines built out over the lagoon reef and connected by walkways to the shore. A septic
tank -system is installed at the site of the U. S. Meteorological Station.

Garbage is collected by truck twice a week and is burned on the reef. The unconsumed
remains are carried off by the'sea.

Maintenance Facilities

The principal maintenance facility is the Government Workshop located in the Betio dock area.
Available equipment includes two metal lathes, a shaping machine, a vertical drilling machine, two
grindstones, a valve grinder, an electric welding plant, and an oxyacetylene plant. The type of
work accomplished here ranges from complete overhaul of diesel engines (up to 100 horsepower) to
repair of vehicles and maintenance and repair of generators. Replacing parts is a problem because
a relatively small stock is kept on hand.

The Wholesale Society (Betio) and the Government (Bairiki) have vehicle maintenance shops
with compressors, grinders, battery-charging equipment, and grease racks or pits. The Wholesale
Society boatyard at Betio and the Government carpenter shop at Bairiki have woodworking machines
such a routers and planers.

Fire Protection

There is no formal group of personnel continuously on duty for fire protection. When an alarm
is given, a group of laborers on each island assembles for fire-fighting under the supervision of a
Caucasian. The two trucks (at Betio and Bairiki) which are used during the day for distribution of
water to houses are left filled each night for use in an emergency. In addition, there are four
35-gallon extinguishers on wheels (2 at Bairiki, 1 each at Betio and Bikenibeu). As further pro-
tection, each Grade B house has two hand extinguishers (carbon tetrachloride and soda acid),
and each Grade C house has a soda acid extinguisher. Among the smaller houses, a soda acid
extinguisher is maintained for every 10 structures. Buckets are kept at hand in all main buildings.
An alarm system is maintained. With the equipment outlined above, there have been few serious
fires despite the apparent hazard of thatched roofs on most buildings.

Police Protection

Although the Superintendent of Police for the Colony is located on Ocean Island, the principal
police officer for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands District, entitled Inspector of Police, has his
headquarters on Tarawa. The forces for each of the main areas consist of: a Station Sergeant
and 9 police at Betio; the Inspector, a Sergeant, and 15 police at Bairiki; and 1 policeman at
Bikenibeu. A part-time local village policeman is stationed in each of the other villages on the
atoll.

The principal jail for Tarawa, located at Bairiki, has a capacity of 21 male and 7 female
prisoners at any one time.

48

Housekeeping Facilities and Personal Services

Quarters and Food Supply

Although the British have completed an appreciable program of construction of permanent
housing on Tarawa, all housing is occupied and no facility is immediately available for even a
small visiting party (figure 34). Some hundreds of houses have been built, but only 34 meet
standards for occupancy by Caucasians. There is no hotel nor guest house of any description.
Billeting of a visiting group would be difficult. Two qualifications to the above statements may
be pointed out:

1. The buildings at Betio formerly occupied by the U. S. Pdeteorological Station are vacant at

present and could provide shelter for an official party (figure 30). However, all equipment,
bedding, messing, food, and the like would have to be brought in by the visiting group.

2. An official visiting party might be provided quarters, if plans were properly coordinated, at
the Royal New Zealand Air Force facility at Bairiki (figure 35). These quarters were
established for use by the crews of RNZAF aircraft which visit Tarawa approximately every
two months on training flights. The facility, which has room for 6 officers and 15 enlisted
men in two buildings, includes a separate cook and wash house (figure 36). Bedding and
utensils are left in the buildings. All that is required of a visiting party is to supply its own
food and to hire local labor as cooks and orderlies. If formal arrangements were made with
the RNZAF at Lauthala Bay (near Suva), Fiji, it might be possible for a group to occupy these
quarters between the periodic visits by the RNZAF.

Any visiting party of more than two persons would, at the least, have to supply its own food, and
very probably would have to supply its entire bedding and messing needs.

Medical and Dental Care

The principal hospital for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony is located at Bikenibeu, near
the southeast corner of Tarawa Atoll. The staff is comprised of 5 Caucasians (2 doctors,
2 nurses, 1 pharmacist), 3 assistant medical officers (natives trained at the medical school at
Suva, Fiji), 15 native nurses, 15 dressers (about the same as first aid men), and about 20 cooks,
janitors, and other workers.

The hospital has beds for 6 Caucasian patients, 83 native patients, 15 mental patients, and,
in an adjoining area, facilities for handling 70 leprosy cases. A fully equipped operating theater,
X-ray machine, and facilities for simple laboratory tests comprise the major equipment at the
hospital.

Operations such as appendectomies and hernias and maternity cases are routine for both
Caucasians and natives, but more involved medical problems, so far as Caucasians are concerned,
are handled by specialists in Australia or Fiji. An assistant medical officer, specialized in
dentistry, does oral surgery and makes dental plates.

Laundry and Cleaning Services

No commercial drycleaning or laundry facilities exist on Tarawa. Local laundresses do all
washing, houseboys do minor cleaning, and fancy cleaning is mailed to Australia or Suva for
processing.

49

m *•• - ■!■■■"■ i > ■ vv v.;-. \ •

Figure 34. Grade D Government Housing Occupied by Gilbertese
Couple in Foreground.

Figure 35. Royal New Zealand Air Force Quarters at Bairiki

(Quarters for Enlisted Men in Center, With Officers' Quarters

at Extreme Right and Cook House at Extreme Left).

50

9

COOK
HOUSE

WATER
TANK

-I— I-

OUARTERS

FOR 15
ENLISTED

MEN

-f— I-

MESS HALL

■+- •-

20

I I I I I I I I I I I

SCALE (FEET)

Figure 36. Map of Royal Now Zealand Air Force Facility at Bairiki

51

Religion

Although there are small congregations of perople who profess the Bahai, Church of God, and
Seventh Day Adventist faiths, most of the population of Tarawa is divided approximately half and
half between Roman Catholics and members of the London Missionary Society (closely related to
Methodism).

A Catholic church is located in every village, and a small LMS church is located on every
islet of the atoll. On Tarawa are a Catholic bishop, two priests, and about four nuns who are ex-
patriates, and also Caucasian pastors of the Bahai and Church of God faiths. Native pastors
represent the other religions.

Education

In Tarawa, no school is available which maintains European standards of education. Caucasian
children, at about age 9, are sent off to boarding schools in Australia, New Zealand, or England.

The King George V School (figure 37) at Bikenibeu is the principal school for the colony. It
provides secondary education to native boys from all over the colony. The Education Officer and
Headmaster of the school are expatriates.

Figure 37. King George V School at Bikenibeu (Assembly Hall at Right and
Administration Building at Left).

52

Recreation

Commercial recreation facilities are absent from Tarawa, with the exception of two open-air
movie theaters at Betio and one at Bairiki. These theaters charge 12 cents admission and present
programs dominated by old cowboy movies and adventure films. Caucasians have organized clubs
at Betio and Bairiki which serve as focal points for social activities; each has a bar, billiards,
darts, and other typical club facilities. Tennis courts are available at Betio and Bairiki, and
sports grounds for cricket and rugby are located at these villages and at Bikenibeu. Fishing, sail-
ing, and skin diving provide other recreational outlets.

Construction

Except for reef detritus used as aggregate for concrete, no construction material whatsoever
is available at Tarawa. All cement, steel, and lumber are imported for specific jobs, and there is
never any excess for casual purchase or use. Coral debris from the reefs is used to good
advantage in concrete after it is washed and screened. Small (3/16-to-3/4-inch) and large (3/4-to-
2-inch) sizes are used; fine particles and the few particles over 2 inches are discarded. Well water,
fresh to brackish, is used in making concrete, but seawater can be used if necessary; in the latter
case, the curing period is longer and the early strength of the concrete is lower.

All construction equipment has been imported for special purposes, principally for the harbor
construction project. The equipment list comprises a 5/8-yard dragline, a 50-horsepower bulldozer
with winch, 2 Mortis 3-ton tippers, 4 concrete mixers (10-cubic-foot), a trailer-mounted compressor,
and a diesel piling hammer. The piling hammer, a Delmay model D5, is used for driving the steel
sheet piling for the Betio wharf.

Local construction costs can be roughly approximated from the cost of the Bairiki Secretariat
(figure 8) which amounted to $37,000. The cost factor probably is 2.5 to 3 times that of Wash-
ington, D. C.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Banner, A. H. , and J. E. Randall, "Preliminary Report on Marine Biology Study of Onotoa Atoll,
Gilbert Islands." Atoll Research Bulletin No. 13, Washington, D. C, Pacific Science Board,
December 1952, 62 pp.

Catala, R. L. A., "Report on the Gilbert Islands: Some Aspects of Human Ecology." Atoll Re-
search Bulletin No. 59, Washington, D. C, Pacific Science Board, October 1957, 187 pp plus
17 plates.

Child, P., Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony
Education Department, 1956, 36 pp (mimeographed).

Cloud, P. E., Jr., "Preliminary Report on Geology and Marine Environments of Onotoa Atoll,
Gilbert Islands." Atoll Research Bulletin No. 12, Washington, D. C, Pacific Science Board,
December 1952, 73 pp.

Great Britain, Colonial Office, Colonial Report, Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony and the Central
and Southern Line Islands, Report for the Years 1954 and 1955, London, 1957, 96 pp plus 1 map.

53

Great Britain, Naval Intelligence Division, Pacific Islands. Vol. Ill (Geographical Handbook
Series), 1944, pp 302-86.

Heyen, G. H., Sailing Directions on Navigation Between the Islands and Atolls of the Gilbert
Group. Government Printer, Suva, Fiji, 1937, 18 pp.

Moul, E. T., "Preliminary Report on Land Animals at Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands." Atoll
Research Bulletin No. 28, Washington, D. C, Pacific Science Board, May 1954, 28 pp.

Moul, E. T. f "Preliminary Report on the Flora of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands. " Atoll Research
Bulletin No. 57, Washington,. D. C, Pacific Science Board, September 1957, 48 pp.

Pusinclli, F. N. M., A Report on the Results of the Census of the Population, 1947 (Gilbert and
Ellice Islands Colony). Government Press, Suva, Fiji, 1947, 103 pp.

Randall, J. E., "Fishes of the Gilbert Islands." Atoll Research Bulletin No. 47, Washington, D. C,
Pacific Science Board, August 1955, 243 pp.

Robson, R. W., editor, Pacific Islands Year Book. 8th Ed. Sydney, Australia, Publications
Printery, Ltd., 1959, pp 208-9, 219-21.

Sachet, M. H., "Climate and Meteorology of the Gilbert Islands." Atoll Research Bulletin No. 60,
Washington,, D. C, Pacific Science Board, October 1957, 4 pp plus 5 tables.

Tracey, J. I., Jr., P. E. Cloud, Jr., and K. 0. Emery, "Conspicuous Features of Organic Reefs."
Atoll Research Bulletin No. 46, Washington, D. C, Pacific Science Board, 1955.

U. S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Intelligence Division. Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls.
Washington, iD.,C, Government Printing Office, 1956.

54

APPENDIX A

VEGETATION OF GILBERT ISLANDS
(Source: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 59, pages 79, 80.)

With the exception of Pemphis stands and, of course, of the mangrove proper, no primitive
vegetation types can be recognized today. The original formations have been so thoroughly
modified by man that there is no trace left of them, especially as all these islands are rather
densely populated.

Besides the coconut palm, which covers the largest area, some species may still have a
certain density and show marked preferences for some habitats, but they form a secondary vege-
tation rather than ruins of former original types.

In many cases the primary components are now represented only by isolated specimens, which
tend to disappear not only because of the growing prevalence of the coconut palm but also because
the natives do not care to preserve or propagate them. This is the case for trees such as Pisonia,
Cordia, etc. In some islands even valuable trees such as pandanus may be disappearing, as they
are considered of minor importance in comparison with the commercial value of copra.

The Gilbert Islands offer today the following vegetation types:

I. Vegetation of the seaward side

Scaevola, more or less dense, forms an almost unbroken belt.. Their density is always greater
than that of other neighbouring plants. This species grows nearest to the shore. Messerschmidia
in isolated specimens or small groups are found, most of them with twisted trunks. Their height
does not exceed 3 m. Pandanus, are more or less numerous, but always as isolated individuals.
The prevailing low plants are: Lepturus, which is very seldom found in the shaded central zone,
and Fimbristylis. A few Triumfetta and Cyperus sometimes grow among them. The coconut palm
begins in this zone, the first rows growing a little above high-water mark.

II. Vegetation of the interior

The area occupied by other species is usually conditioned by the density of the coconut
palms. If these are very close together, we find only the following low plants: Thuarea,
Fimbristylis, Euphorbia and gramineae of the genera Stenotapbrum and Cenchrus, with a few small
Scaevola here and there. If the coconuts are less dense, there will be some tree species such as:
Pandanus, Guettarda and Morinda; and in addition to the low plants already mentioned, Boerhavia,
Triumfetta, Fleurya, Sida, Dodonaea and Cassytha. The grasses are almost all present and
Psilotum and Polypodium occur here and there at the foot of the coconut trees. Of course the
number of these plants and the area they cover vary with the degree to which the ground is tended.
If the coconut palms are very sparsely planted, some trees such as Cordia and Pisonia may occur,
though rarely nowadays.

Many low plants survive with difficulty in open areas while species such as Sida fallax,
which seem to prefer strong sunlight, can achieve great extension there.

A-l

III. Vegetation of the lagoon side (area of roads and villages)

The roadsides being generally cleared to a certain width, few plants are to be found there
except common grasses. On the other hand, the shrubs and trees of the interior may be found
again between the cleared road zone and the edge of the lagoon, with the addition of small groups
of tAesserschmidia forming a narrow strip slightly in front of the coconut palms.

One plant will be found growing densely on sandy areas that are always damp below the
surface through tidal seepage; this is Fimbristylis, which tolerates high salinity. On the contrary,
Scaevola, Guettarda and Lepturus always grow above the level of the highest tides.

Village areas offer a very different aspect, due to the number of plants cultivated in their
immediate vicinity and around the houses. Among food trees, in addition to coconut palms which
are widely spaced, breadfruit trees predominate, and sometimes reach a large size. Pandanus
trees are found in varying numbers, mostly around the village periphery, except in thesouthern
islands where they are given the same choice locations as Artocarpus. Papaya trees are found in
every village and are often very tall. Banana plants are sometimes a component of this vegetation,
but are grown only in pits. Small pumpkin patches are seen around the houses in southern islands,
generally side by side with numerous tobacco plants, while Ficus tinctori a is usually found a little
behind the last houses. Tomatoes and sweet potatoes are very scarce and we saw them only on a
few islands in the centre and north of the Gilbert Group.

One of the characteristics of the Gilbertese village is the great variety of ornamental plants.
The most commonly found are Crinum, Russelia, Mirabilis, Catharanthus and Pseuderanthemum.
The low plants considered as weeds vary in abundance, of course, according to the cleanliness of
the village and are, in fact, rather scarce. Euphorbia prostrata, Fimbristylis, Pbyllanthus,
Eragrostis and Digitaria are most often seen.

In addition to village and roadside vegetation, the Pemphis type should be given special
mention. This shrubby plant (Pemphis acidula Forst) forms thick stands, often spreading over
large areas, just at the limit of the highest tides of the lagoon, and above the first depressions
filled by high tides and occupied by Rhizophora. The latter may often cover large areas which
are submerged at high tide.

A-2

APPENDIX B
KEY PERSONNEL OF GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS GOVERNMENT

Name

Position In
August 1959

Temporary
Rank

Permanent
Position

Permanent
Rank

Location

Bernacchi, M. L.

On leave

m

Resident
Commissioner

1

Bairiki

Davies, R.

Acting Resident
Commissioner

1

Secretary to
Government

2

Bairiki

Turpin, R.

Acting Secretary
to Government

2

Administrative
Officer, Class B

-

Bairiki

Roberts, R. G.

District Commis-
sioner, Gilbert
and Ellice Islands

3

District Commis-
sioner, Gilbert
and Ellice Islands

3

Betio

Rees,.W. H.

Acting Chief
Medical Officer

4

Medical Officer

-

Bikenibeu

Shaw, J. A.

Acting Accountant
General

5

Accountant

*

Bairiki

B-1

APPENDIX C
POPULATION OF GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS COLONY

Table C-l. Breakdown of Population in Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.
Table C-2. Population Trends in Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.

CI

Table C-l. Breakdown of Population in Gilbert and El lice Islands Colony.
(Estimates as of 31 December 1958)

Location

Total

Motive

Caucasian

Mongolian

GILBERT AND ELLICF

ISLANDS DISTRICT:

Maldn

1,130

1,129

*■

1

Butaritari

2,118

2,116

2

mm

Marakei

1,790

1,787

3

-

Abaiang

3,234

3,226

8

-

Ta-awa

7,125

6,982

141

2

Maiana

1,359

1,358

1

-

Abemama

1,341

1,334

7

-

Kuria

541

540

-

1

Aranuka

571

571

-

•

Nonouti

2,143

2,140

3

-

Tabiteuea

3,266

3,261

5

-

Bern

1,968

1,965

3

-

Onotoa

1,542

1,542

-

-

Nikunau

2,011

2,008

3

-

Tamana

1,142

1,142

-

-

Arorae

1,551

1,551

-

-

Subtotal for Gilbert Islands

32,832

32.652

176

4

Nanumea

928

928

w

_

Nanumanga

513

513

-

-

Niutao

731

731

-

-

Nui

485

485

-

-

Vaitupu

822

822

-

-

Nukufetau

579

579

-

-

Funafuti

567

562

5

-

Nukulaelae

270

270

m

-

Niulakita

43

43

-

-

Subtotal for Ellice Island?

4,938

4.933

5

Total for district

37,770

37,585

181

4

OCEAN ISLAND DISTRICT:

Total for district

2.381

2,135

170

76

PHOENIX ISLANDS DISTRICT)

Canton

368

179

189 b

-

Hull

729

729

-

-

Gardner

183

183

-

-

Total for district

1,280

1,091

189 h

LINE ISLANDS DISTRICT:

Washington

305

304 c

1

—

Fanning

436

401 c

34

1

Christmas* 1

374

373

l d

-

Total for district

1.115

1,078

36

/

GRAND TOTAL FOR COLONY

42,546

41,889

576

81

a - Condominium of United States and United Kingdom.
b • Caucasian population in June 1956.
c - Including a few "mixed race",
d - Excluding military forces.

C2

Table C-2- Population Trends in Gilbert and El lice (standi Colony.

Racial Segment

1931

1947

1958°

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Micronesians

Polynesians

Mongolians

Caucasians

Mixed

28,946

3,668

728

249

231

85

11

2

1

1

29,923

5,006

142

304

565

83
14

1
2

36,956
4,933 b
81

576
?

87
12

1

Total

33,822

100

35,940

100

42,546

100

a - Estimated by Government officials.

b - Total of Ellice Islands population, excluding 5 Caucasians.

C3

APPENDIX D

SOME AVOIDANCES TO BE OBSERVED IN RELATIONS WITH NATIVES
(Source: Grimble, A, R, Instructions and Hints to District Officers. Suva: J. J. McHugh 1929.)

1. Don't expect to know the native until you have learned his home life. Don't expect to learn
his home life except by constant hut-to-hut visitation. Don't expect to have any influence
with the native until he knows that you know him.

2. Don't attempt to drive a native: lead him. Don't attempt to frighten him: he cannot be
frightened physically.

3. Don't say anything that sounds like boasting or self-aggrandisement. There is a native
proverb: "He owns no land, so his words are big."

4. Don't speak loud. There is another Gilbertese proverb: "A chief whispered: I swooned.
A slave shouted: I awoke to laugh."

5. Don't reproach a native for bad manners until you are sure that you yourself are good-
mannered according to his code.

6. Don't threaten or even speak of a native's head: it is sacred.

7. Don't point with extended finger: bend the finger and point with the knuckle.

8. Don't walk upright between two natives engaged in conversation. Bow the head, so as to
clear their line of vision.

9. Don't forget to answer: "Te raoi" (peace!) if a native says "Ko raba" (thank you!).

10. Don't walk through a seated crowd without the preliminary courtesy: "E matauninga te aba? 1
(Are the people offended?). Say this and await the answer: "E aki matauninga, na rikai"
(They are not offended, pass this way). Then proceed.

D-l

APPENDIX E
COMMUNICATIONS IN GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS COLONY

The communications network in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony consists of 34 stations,
listed in table El. Regular contacts also are maintained with several other communications points
outside the colony.

Communications equipment at Tarawa, which is the Government center of the colony, includes
the transmitters detailed in table E-2, the receivers detailed in table E-3, and the VHF transmitter-
receiver system described in table E-4. The test equipment at Tarawa, used to keep the communi-
cations equipment in good operating condition, is listed in table E-5.

The communications operations at Tarawa can be classified as point-to-point communications,
shore/ship communications, ground/ air communications, aircraft navigational aid, and local broad-
casting service. The usage of equipment at Tarawa in these operations is described in tables
E-6, E-7, and E-8.

The layout of receiving/operating positions, the staffing of receiving and transmitting stations,
the stocking of spare units, and the maintenance of equipment at Tarawa are all simplified by an
arrangement in which certain individual equipments are used at different times for different circuits,
usually but not necessarily on the same frequencies. This arrangement is shown by the Tarawa
radio schedules for 1 September 1959 detailed in table E-9. Although some circuits appear to be
inadequately provided with night or secondary frequencies, local officials say that doubtless alloca-
tions would be available if the necessity arose or if the period of service were extended from the
present 18 hours per day to 24 hours per day.

The normal working frequency for shore/ ship communications is 4108.4 kilocycles, and the
alternate frequency is 6282 kilocycles (which is limited to CW). The Pacific area small ships
distress frequency is 2182 kilocycles. It should be noted that the Colony ships are not equipped
to use the international distress frequency of 500 kilocycles.

Broadcasting in vernacular is limited at present to 1 hour per week on the frequency of 6050
kilocycles. One of the communications transmitters (radiating 200 watts) is borrowed for these
broadcasts. The programs are tape recorded by the Information Office personnel at Bairiki, who
have audio facilities and a Ferrograph (English) tape recorder. The taped programs are fed into
the transmitter on Sundays from 1640M to 1715M (local time). The programs, which are half
Gilbertese and half Ellice, include reports of colony news and local music. Although the reception
is limited to the Gilbert and Ellice groups, reports are usually favorable. There are not very many
private radio receivers outside Tarawa, but community listening is popular.

Broadcasting in English is scheduled for 2 hours per week on the frequency of 844 kilocycles.
The program is broadcast by use of locally constructed studio equipment and a* locally constructed
low power transmitter. The programs, which consist of local news reports, music, and British
Broadcasting Corporation feature transcriptions, are presented on Fridays from 1930M to 2130M
(local time). This low-power broadcasting station is located near the transmitting station for
colony communications.

E-l

At the end of 1959, a new 2.5-kilowatt transmitter is being installed in the transmitting station,
a remote studio is being installed on Betio, and another studio is being installed in the Information
Office at Bairiki. This transmitter equipment, which is manufactured by Standard Telephones and
Cables, Ltd. (Australian), will require a 3-phase AC power input. The associated audio equipment
to be used in the remote studios is mostly manufactured by Amalgamated Wireless Austrasia, Ltd.
(Australian) and PYE (English). A special high-angle radiation antenna, termed a vertical inci-
dence array, will be used with this new transmitter. The radiation will be limited to the Gilbert
and Ellice Islands, but a reliable service area is anticipated.

When this new broadcasting equipment is put into operation, the vernacular programs probably
will continue to be recorded in most instances, but under better conditions. However, live programs
from the new remote studio on Betio will be possible.

Although the studio equipment probably will be used to produce live programs for the English
broadcasts, it is not proposed at present to use the new transmitter for the English service.
Probably, the low-power transmitter will be moved to the transmitting station and the small build-
ing which now houses the low-power transmitter will be demolished.

E-2

Table E-l. Wireless Stations in
Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.
(Total of 34 Stations in Colony)

Station

Call Sign

Gilbert Islands (19 Stations):

Headquarters, Tarawa

VSZ

Bairiki, Tarawa

VSZ 39

Bikehibeu, Tarawa

VSZ 40

Abaokoro, Tarawa

VSZ 38

Makin

VSZ 35

Butaritari

VSZ 32

Marakei

VSZ 34

Abaiang

VSZ 33

Mai ana

VSZ 37

Abemama

VSZ 36

Kuria

VSZ 25

Aranuka

VSZ 26

Nonouti

VSZ 24

Tabiteuea

VSZ 23

Beru

VSZ 27

Onotoa

VSZ 29

Tamana

VSZ 30

Arorae

VSZ 31

Nikunau

VSZ 28

Ellice Islands (9 Stations):

Nanumea

ZJU 22

Nanumanga

ZJU 27

Niutao

ZJU 24

Nui

ZJU 23

Funafuti

ZJU

Vaitupu

ZJU 25

Nukufetau

ZJU 28

Nukulaelae

ZJU 29

Niulakita

ZJU 26

Ocean Island (1 Station):

VQK

Phoenix Islands (3 Stations):

Canton

ZIT

Hull

ZIT 23

Gardner

ZIT 25

Line Islands (2 Stations):

Fanning

VQN 22

Christmas

VQN 23

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Table E-3. Summary of Available Information on Receivers at Tarawa

Number

On

Hand

Type or

Model

Manufacturer

Source

'Components

input Power
Required

Antenna

Usage

5

AMR type
680X

Eddystone
(English)

13 tubes,
a rectifier,
and voltage

stabilizer

240 volts AC
mains-operated

Hertz
doublet,
shielded

feed

MCW*

1

AMR type
C13S00

AWA
(Australian)

Purchased

from wartime

disposals

9 tubes and
rectifier

240 volts AC
mains-operated

Hertz
doublet,
shielded

feed

CW

i

type
RA IB

Bendix
(American)

Purchased

from wartime

disposals

8 tubes and
rectifier

240 volts AC
mains-operated

Long wire,
horizontal

CW,

MCW

AWA = Amalgamated Wireless Austrasia, Ltd.

Table E-4. Summary of Available Information on Transmitter-Receiver at Tarawa

Number

On

Hand

Type or
Model

Manufacturer

Input Power
Required

Unmodulated

Output Power

to Antenna

(Watts)

Antenna

Frequency
Used
(Megacycles)

Usage

1

FM type
30-SU-8C

Standard
Telephones
and Cables",

Ltd.
(Australian)

240 volts AC
mains -operated

10

Ground

plane

mounted

on mast

80 feet

above

surface

of
ground

74*

VHF

FM
voice**

Same frequency used for both transmitting and receiving.

Fitted with operators control unit for two extensions at Betlo, one to the public

telephone booth at the Receiver Station and the other one to the District Office.

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E-7

TabS* E-7- Equipment Usage at Tarawa in Shore/Ship Communications

-

Station

Type

of
Signal

Transmission

Reception

Type of
Transmitter

Frequency

[Kilocycles)

Type of
Receiver

Frequency (Kilocycles)

Day

Night

Day

Night

Colony ships,

overseas ships

in area,

or as
required

MCW,
voice

ATH

8790.2
4413.8

4413.8

CW,
voice

680X

4108.4
2182

4108.4
2182

CW

680X

6282

6282

Overseas ships
(international

distress
frequencies)

CW,

MCW

1J51020

500
422
410

500
422
410

RA-1B

500
422
410

500
422
410

Table E-8. Equipment Usage at Tarawa in Ground/Air Communications, Aircraft
Navigational Aid, and Local Broadcasting Service

Station

Type

of
Signal

Transmission

Reception

Type of
Transmitter

Frequency (Kilocycles)

Type of
Receiver

Frequency (Kilocycles)

Day

Night

Day

Night

Ground/air:

All aircraft
in area

MCW,
voice

AT14

or

1J51020

13344.5
8845.5

5641.5
2945

680X

13344.5
8845.5

5641.5
2945

Navigational
Aid:

All. aircraft

in area

as required

CW*

1J51020

375

375

Local
Broadcasting:

Gilbert and

Ellice

Islands

Voice**

AT14

6050

6050

Tarawa

Voice***

Local****

844

844

—

***

****

Automatically keyed to tend long dashes Interspersed with identification "TIT.

Vernacular programs.

Engl ish- language programs.

Constructed by local engineers for low-power (50 watts) operation.

E-8

Table E»9. Tarawa Radio Schedules as of 1 September 1959

Time

Type of
Schedule *

Station

Frequency Used by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich
Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

0600

1800

C

Open VHF, local, and
overseas shipping
watches

74000

4113

500

74000

4108

500

0600

1800

WX

ZJU 22, 23, and 26;
VSZ 27, 31, and 32

6987.5

7460
3730

0600

1800

wx

VQK Ocean Island

11000

7490
3745

0600

1800

c

Special schedule for
Bairiki, Bikenibeu
(priority only) VHF

74000

74000

0615

1815

c

ZJU Ellice subs

6987.5

7460
3730

0620

1820

wx

ZQD Nadi

11000
16077.5

9400 •
11450

0700

1900

c

VSZ send traffic list
and traffic to Ellice subs

6987.5

7460
3730

0705

1905

wx

ZQD Nadi if no contact
at 0620M

11000

15600

0730

1930

c

ZPD Suva

11000

13395

0800

2000

c

Watch-keeping this
area until 1000M

500

0800

2000

c

Colony shipping

4413.8

4108.4

0800

2000

c

Bairiki and Bikenibeu
worked on 6987.5 kilo-
cycles when ZJU Ellice
clear (until 0845M), then
VSZ changes to 4413.8
kilocycles. Bairiki and
Bikenibeu keep continu
ous watch on VHF
during office hours.

6987.5
4413.8

3502.5
74000

0830

2030

c

Bairiki, Bikenibeu
Sundays and holidays
only

4413.8

3502.5

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-9

Table E-9. Tarawa Radio Schedules (Cont'd)

Time

Type of
Schedule*

Station

Frequency Usee

by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich
Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

0855

2055

WX

VQK Ocean Island,
ZJU Funafuti, VSZ 31
Arorae

6987.5

7460

VQK Ocean Island

7490

0900

2100

c

VQK Ocean Island
listens on 11000 kilo-
cycles until 1000M

11000

7490

0900

2100

WX

ZQD Nadi

11000

15600

0900

2100

c

VSZ sends shipping
notes and traffic list to
Northern Gilberts, sends
and receives traffic
until 1015M

6987.5

7460

0905

2105

c

ZIT Canton listens for
VSZ on 11000 kilocycles
until 1000M (Pass pri-
ority Government and
all private traffic for
Christmas)

11000

9825

0915

2115

c

VPD Suva

11000

13395

0950

2150

c

VQJ Honiara (Sundays,
holidays only priority
traffic)

11000

11568

1015

2215

c

VSZ sends shipping
notes and traffic list to
Southern Gilberts,
handles traffic until
1130M

6987.5

7460

1015

2215

WX

ZQD Nadi administra-
tion

11000

15600

1030

2230

c

VKT Nauru

11000

8175

1050

2250

c

VQJ Honiara (except
Sundays and holidays)

11000

11568

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-10

Table E-9. Tarawa Radio Schedules (Cont'd)

Time

Type of
Schedule*

Station

Frequency Used by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich
Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

1100

2300

C

VQK Ocean Island
listens for VSZ until
1200M (except Sundays)

11000

7490

1130

2330

C

VPD Suva

11000

13395

1130

2330

c

VSZ 31 Arorae accepts
priority traffic for Ellice
weather subs

6987.5

7460

1150

2350

wx

VSZ 31 Arorae passes
Ellice weather to
Tarawa

6987.5

7460

1155

2355

wx

VSZ 32 Butaritari

6987.5

7460

1200

2400

c

Bairiki, Bikenibeu
Sundays and holidays

4413.8

3502.5

1200

2400

wx

VQK Ocean Island

11000

7490

1200

2400

c

Watch-keeping this
area until 1400M

500

1200

2400

c

Tarawa sends traffic
list and exchanges
traffic with Northern
Gilberts until 1445M

6987.5

7460

1205

0005

wx

ZQD Nadi

16077

15600

1300

0100

c

Tarawa keeps special
schedule Colony ships
(urgent traffic only)

4413.8

4108.4

1305

0105

wx

ZQD Nadi for area
forecast

16077

15600

1400

0200 C

VKT Nauru (except
Saturdays, Sundays,
and holidays)

11000

8175

1445

0245

C ZIT Canton keeps

watch on Tarawa for
traffic until 1545M

11000

9825

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-11

Table E-9. Tarawa Radio Schedules (Cont'd)

Time

Type of
Schedule*

Station

Frequency Use

i by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich

Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

1445

0245

C

Tarawa works VQK on
6987.5 kilocycles until
weather is collected at
1445M (except Sundays)

6987.5

7490

1455

0255

WX

Tarawa collects weather
from Ocean, Funafuti,
and Arorae

6987.5

7460

VQK Ocean Island

7490

1500

0300

c

Tarawa sends traffic
list and subs, receives
traffic from Southern
Gilberts until 1730M

6987.5

7460

1500

0300

c

VQK Ocean Island keeps
listening watch on
Tarawa for traffic until
1600M (except Sundays)

11000

7490

15 JO

0315

WX

ZQD Nadi

16077

15600

1530

0330

c

VPD Suva

11000

13395

1600

0400

c

Tarawa works Colony
•shipping

4413.8

4108.4

1600

0400

c

Watch-keeping this
area until 1800M

500

1600

0400

c

VQJ Honiara (except
Saturdays, Sundays,
and holidays)

11000

11568

1630

0430

c

Bairiki, Bikenibeu

4413.S

3502.5

1645

0445

WX

VQD Nadi administra-
tion (except Sundays)

11000

15600

1700

0500

c

VQK Ocean Island keeps
watch on Tarawa until
1800M

11000

7490

1730

0530

c

VPD Suva

11000

13395

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-12

Table E-9. Tarawa Radio Schedules (Cont'd)

Time

Type of
Schedule*

Station

Frequency Usee

by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich
Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

1800

0600

WX

Collection of subs
weather until 1800M

6987.5

7460
3730

1800

0600

c

Special VHF schedule
with Bairiki and Bikeni-
beu (urgent or priority
traffic only)

74000

74000

1820

0620

WX

ZQD Nadi

11000

9400

1830

0630

c

VQN 23 Christmas
Island

6987.5

7460
3730

1830

0630

c

ZIT Canton Island keeps
listening watch for
traffic until 1930M

11000

9825
7460

1900

0700

c

VPD Suva

11000

13395

1930

0730

c

ZJU Funafuti

6987.5

7460
3730

1945

0745

c

VKT Nauru (except
Saturdays, Sundays,
and holidays)

4413.8

8175

2000

0800

c

Watch-keeping this
area until 2200M

500

2000

0800

c

Special VHF schedule
with Bairiki and Bikeni-
beu (urgent or priority
traffic only)

74000

74000

2000

0800

c

VQK Ocean Island
keeps listening watch
until 2200M

11000
6987.5

7490
3745

2200

1000

c

Special VHF schedule
with Bairiki and Bikeni-
beu (urgent or priority
traffic only)

74000

74000

2340

1140

WX

ZJU 26 Niulakita

6987.5

7460
3730

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-13

Table E-9. Tarawa Radio Schedules (Cont'd)

Time

Type of
Schedule*

Station

Frequency Used. by Tarawa

Local
(M Zone)

Greenwich

Mean

(Kilocycles)

Transmission

Reception

2345

1145

WX

Collection of weather
from subs, including
ZIT 25 Gardner Island

6987.5

7460
3730

2345

1145

wx

Collection of weather
from VQK Ocean Island

6987.5

7490
3745

2400

1200

WX

ZQD Nadi

4413.8

9400

C Commercial communications
WX Weather information

E-U

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 73

Some aspects of agriculture on Tarawa Atoll, Gilbert Islands

by
R. R. Mason

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.
October 15, i960

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Soils of Tarawa 2

Water 8

Gardening experiments 11

Livestock 13

Tools 1^

Improvements possible in the native agriculture 15

DIAGRAMS

1. Soil types in the Bikenibeu area

2. Water levels in the Bikenibeu wells
3- Salinity of water near Bikenibeu

k. Air and earth temperatures and relative humidity

Some aspects of agriculture on Tarawa Atoll,
Gilbert Islands
by

R. R. Mason

INTRODUCTION

The following paper is part of a report -written in 1951 -which has
not previously been published. The writer spent three months on Tarawa
taking part in the South Pacific Commission's project E.6, the economic
development of coral atolls. The report of Dr. R. Catala,* the leader of
the S.P.C. team, has been published (Atoll Res. Bull. 59: 1957)*

It had been intended to visit two or three other islands after com-
pleting investigations on Tarawa; but shortage of transport made it neces-
sary to return to Fiji when an opportunity offered, before any other islands
could be visited.

Work accomplished includes soil and water investigations, studies on
the main crops* (coconuts, Cyrtosperma , pandanus, etc. ), observations on
livestock, and some brief notes on tools and on native plants.* Consider-
ation was given to the establishment of a small agricultural station at
Bikenibeu, near the site chosen for the King George V school.

* The published report by Dr. Catala incorporated parts of the observa-
tions made on Tarawa by Mr. Mason and treated some of the same subjects.
To avoid costly duplication of material, some chapters of Mr. Mason's
report are omitted from this Bulletin. The report of Dr. Catala also
contains many photos which illustrate points brought out by Mr. Mason. — Ed.

-2-

SOILS OF TARAWA

Since all the soils of Tarawa Atoll are derived from coral, there is
no great variation. Hard coral rock outcrops in a few places, and in others
there is little or no sand hut many stones — for example, at Temaiku. In
general, however, there is a layer of sand two to six feet deep ahove the
underlying coral rock. Where soil has been developed, the commonest pro-
file is a horizon of brown to dark brown sandy material high in organic
matter and from 2 to 12 inches deep, overlying a pale brown horizon extend-
ing to between 12 and 30 inches; below this is coarse yellowish -white sand.
This soil type has been named the Bikenibeu Sand ("B"); 17 profiles were
examined and some are described below.

Two phases of this soil type were met fairly frequently. They are
the Bikenibeu Sand Shallow Phase ("Bsh"), in which hard coral rock is found
at 36 inches or less; and the Bikenibeu Sand Stony Phase ("Bst"), with a
stony layer, often closely packed, usually at about twelve inches. Nine
profiles of these two phases were examined.

The Eita Marine Marsh ("E") is a soil type in which extreme salinity
inhibits plant growth. The type occurs infrequently in depressions behind
the ocean and lagoon beaches.

The Mweang skeletal soil ("M") shows a dark-brown or black peaty
sand in the upper layers, associated with large numbers of small stones,
the soil occupying the interstices between the stones. Three profiles
were examined, in separate areas. The dark-coloured soil, if sieved
free from stones, is useful for gardening.

The fourth soil type is the Te Ribu loamy sand ("R" ), which again
was found in small isolated areas. The loamy sand characteristic of this
soil type is found at a variable depth, never on the surface, although
at Buota it was uncovered at the bottom of 'babai' pits. It is suffi-
ciently plastic to be moulded in the fingers. This soil appears to be
very poor, for the coconuts at Buota were few in number and were yellow
with little fruit, and there was no grass. In the pits the 'babai' was
poor and yellowish except for a few plants growing in a shaded place.
Shade however was very limited. A similar condition, though not so pro-
nounced, was seen near Buariki.

The rapid variation of soil type and the consequent impractica-
bility of preparing soil maps is shown by figure 1, a plan giving the
different types in the Bikenibeu area.

Apart from the exceptions mentioned above, there was little cor-
relation between soil type and plant growth. No correlation was observed
between production of coconuts and depth of dark soil except when the
latter was less than two inches. On the other hand, profile No. k was
from an area where the trees were distinctly above average, and it showed
the horizons at k and 8 inches only, with maximum root development
between 12 and 18 inches. The only places where fertility was markedly
higher were on a deep dark-coloured soil at Buariki, where the rainfall
is probably a little higher, and on Betio. Pre-war Betio is said to have
been no different from the other islets, but now the difference is great.

-3-

A young coconut, not more than 5 years old "but already starting to flower
was typical of many. The creeper Ipomea pes-caprae was running riot in
places. The increased fertility is the result of the intense disturbance
of the ground "by "bombs and shells in 19^> and of the many thousands of
Japanese "buried there. Many plants not seen elsewhere flourish there des-
pite the lack of shade. As a result of the bombardment, there were only
about twenty mature coconut trees left on the whole islet after the war.

The underlying coral rock was not often reached in digging pits, but
was quite frequently seen in village wells. (Profiles could not be taken
since the sides are built up with stone). A very hard layer was reached
in Well No. II at Bikenibeu at 99 inches. This appeared to be very thick,
although several wells were seen where it was only 3 to k inches. Its
porosity was shown by the water rising through it with the rising tide. A
series of borings with a post-hold borer showed the varying depths in a
cross section of the island east of the village of Bikenibeu. The rock
is prominent at that place on both the lagoon and ocean shores. On the
lagoon side of the island ('Tanrio') the depth was about 3 feet near to
the road, twenty yards from the sea. Trees were bearing fairly well in
all three places. Presumably the root system was sufficiently long to
reach the deeper soil. (Many roots were encountered while digging well
No. IV at Bikenibeu although no trees grew within 10 yards.)

Outcrops of rock occur near Eita village and on the small peninsula
at Temaiku. No coconuts grew in the former place; but in the latter, fruit
was produced to a limited extent even where there was k inches or less of
sand over the rock. Presumably cracks exist. East of Abatao is an area
of fairly hard stone, but a pit showed extensive coconut roots underneath,
at 6 to 10 inches depth. This is not coral but appears to be a type of
mudstone which has hardened on exposure.

Soil samples collected in Tarawa and despatched to Suva for
analysis were all ruined by sea water while in the hold of R.C.S. "Kiakia, "
together with most of the entomological specimens. The following ten
analyses were made in Tarawa, using the 'La Motte 1 apparatus. (Table 1, pA)

These samples were taken where the soil by its blackness or the
coconuts by their fruit appeared above average.

Native names for different kinds of sand and soil are as follows:

Te Bike Shore sand

Te Tano Ordinary sandy soil

Te Bon, Te Bon Ro, Black soil, frequently found under

Te Iarauri 'Te Uri • (Guettarda)

Te Mweang Light black soil which blows in

the wind.
Te Ribu, Te Riburibu Grey clayey soil. Worse than sand

if water is salty.
Te Ririba Outcrops of rock

Te Bokaboka Mud in babai pits etc.

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-5-

Description of Soil Profiles

Soil types

Bikenibeu sand B

Bikenibeu sand Shallow phase BsL

Bikenibeu sand Stony phase Bst

Eita marine marsh E

Te Mweang M

Te Ripu R

No structure was observed in any of these soil
types.

BIKENIBEU SAND
(U

Profile No. 6: Tabaongo, !■£■ miles east of Bikenibeu wells

Surface: Coconuts with patches of Lepturus

1.

to 2 inches

2. 2 to 54 inches

3. 5k to 69 inches

k. 69 + inches

Dark brown sand, friable, organic -matter-stained,
free draining, few roots, no stones.

Pale brown sand, loose, no organic matter

free draining, root development greatest between

6 and 18 inches with some to 36 inches. No stones,

Pale yellow sand, loose, no organic matter
free draining, no roots, coral fragments up to
2 inches in size.

Hard coral rock.

Water rises to 66 inches at high water only.

This is the commonest type of profile. Considerable variation
occurs in the extent of the horizons. Horizon I sometimes extends to
5 inches, while horizon 3 was sometimes met as high as 10 inches. Less
developed profiles occur particularly near the beaches. Occasionally
a buried former surface is met. In places where the coral rock was not
reached by about 6 feet, further digging was prevented by water.

-6-

BIKENIBEU SAMP, SHALLOW PHASE
(BsL)
Profile No. 18

Surface: Coconut palms, germinating nuts; fallen leaves, no grass.

1. to 10 inches Brown sand, friable, organic -matter stained, free

draining. Maximum root growth between 3 and 9
inches. No stones.

2. 10 to 20 inches Yellow coarse sand, loose, no organic -matter,

free draining. Few roots, no stones.

3. 20 - inches Hard coral rock.

In other profiles horizon 1 varies from 2 to 12 inches and from brown
to dark brown. In the other pits examined, the hard coral was struck at
depths between 27 and 38 inches. It was too hard to be broken by crow-bar.

BIKENIBEU SAND, STONY PHASE
(Bst)

Profile No. 25, 3/4 mile east of Bikenibeu.

Surface: Coconut palms rather yellow, yield fair to poor. No
other vegetation.

1. to 2 inches Brown sand, friable, organic -matter stained,

free draining, few roots, no stones.

2. 2 to 15 inches Pale grey-brown sand, loose, no organic -matter,

free draining, root development throughout; no
stones.

3. 15 -t- inches Stones - irregular flat coral stones lying

horizontally and too tightly packed to prise
with spade without great difficulty.

The thickness of the stony layer is variable. In profile 26, at
the old site of Eita village, a layer of flat very hard white smooth coral
stones up to 12 inches long and 1§ inches thick occurs between Ik and l6
inches. Below this occurs a horizon of yellow and brown very coarse sand
with few roots but with many stones.

-7-

EITA MARINE MARSH
(E)

Profile No. 27: salt bog 22 yards inland from ocean beach, with
high sand hank intervening. Cue south of Te Bike island.

Surface: hare of vegetation; greenish -brown in colour.

1. to 3 inches Pale grey sand

2. to 10 inches Grey sand

3« 10 t Yellow coarse sand

Brackish water was struck at 7 inches but later it rose to 1 inch,
and probably covers the surface at high water spring tides. Salt con-
tent very high - approximately 1.98$ chloride. Typical of numbers of
small isolated areas close to the sea where fluctuations of salty water
associated with tidal rise and fall inhibits growth of vegetation.

TE MWEANG
(M)

Profile No. 28, south of Taborio village.

Surface: Vegetation cover of coconuts, sparse
Lepturus , and some shrubs. Ground surface com-
prises white coral pebbles.

1. to 1^+inches Black highly organic sand occupying the inter-
stices between the closely packed stones, free
draining, roots throughout, extremely stony.

The highly -packed stones make digging almost impossible. One pit
near Abatao, however, penetrated the upper horizons and reached off-white
sand with many larger stones at 18 inches.

It would appear that the reason for the striking accumulation of
organic matter in this soil type is that all root growth is confined to
the very small volume of soil between the stones; thus the continuing
addition of organic matter to the soil balances the losses through
oxidation.

-8-
TE RIPU

Profile No. 32: near Buota

Surface: Coconuts unhealthy in appearance , yellowish and with
few nuts. No grass cover. Cyperus , Si da , Fandanus , Scaevola
occur close "by, Guettarda scrub being dominant at this spot.

1. to 10 inches Dark, nearly "black loamy sand, friable, organic-

matter stained, few roots, no stones.

2. 10 to 30 inches Grey fine sandy loam, slightly sticky when wet,

no organic matter, no roots, no stones.

3. 30 -f- inches Mixed coral fragments.

WATER

Water is very frequently the limiting factor for growth. The rain-
fall is extraordinarily variable.* In 1930, 138.52 inches fell, 29 inches
being in November. (These figures are by courtesy of the New Zealand
Meteorological Service and the Gilbert and Ellice Administration. ) In
1950 a total of 15-38 inches fell in twelve months - 2.9^ inches in the
first seven months. (Rainfall is high in the northern islands and lower
in the south; in 1950 Beru, one of the southern islands, received 9.6Q
inches.) The mean for Tarawa over 16 years is 64.19 inches per annum.
Naturally last year's drought (1950) killed off numbers of coconuts in
poor environments such as on sand spits or on small islands. It seems
remarkahle that anything could stay alive.

Ground-water can be obtained anywhere that a hole can he dug to a
depth of from five to ten feet, depending on the height of the land.
Drinking water is obtained from wells of low salinity. It appears that
the level of well water varies only slightly with conditions of rainfall
but no definite data could be obtained on this subject. (A recording
device was designed but was not completed before leaving. ) There is a
very pronounced rise and fall of ground-water due to the effect of the
tides. Naturally the movement is greatest close to the beach and least
in the centre of the island. Nine wells were dug at Bikenibeu on a line
at right angles to the "beaches, to give a transverse section of the land,
and the levels in these were recorded over a 36 hour period. Graphs from
the data obtained are shown in Figure 2. Since all nine could not he
plotted on the same axes, the first five and the last four are given
separately. The sites of the wells are shown in Figure 3; well No. 1
is nearest to the ocean beach, and well No. 9 is on the lagoon tidal
sand flats. The graphs are plotted about a common mean, and show clearly
how the movement decreased from No. 1 to No. 5 and increases again from
No. 6 to No. 9 though with less regularity. It is also clearly shown

Rainfall tables are included in Atoll Res. Bull. 60: 1957,
by M.-H. Sachet. --Ed.

FIGURE NO. I

B

SOIL TYPES

IN THE
BIKENIBEU AREA

B
8

B B
3 2

BS R R B
23 34 33 1

B
4

R
32

B24

R 30

BS25

B 5

^ BSH BSH BSH B B BSH
19 20 21 6 7 22

B .- BIKENIBEU SAND
BS: STONEY PHASE

BSH.- •• •• SHALLOW PHASE

R: TE RIPU CLAYEY SAND

NUMBERS REFER TO PROFILES.

400 YDS.

FIGURE No. 2

WATER LEVELS IN THE BIKENIBEU

WELLS

RECORDED IN INCHES OVER A 36 HOUR PERIOD.

12 OO 16 OO 2000 24 OO 0400 08 00 12 OO 1600 2006
26/4/51. 27/4/51.

FIGURE No. 3

LAGOON

SALINITY OF WATER

NEAR
BIKENIBEU.

INSET

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-9-

that the central wells reach their maxima and minima one and half to two
hours later than the one nearest to the beach, although there are some
peculiar irregularities.

There is a very great variation in the salinity of ground water
even within a short distance. Figure 3 shows the salinity (expressed as
percentage of chloride) in a number of samples near Bikeniteu. The anal-
ysis was carried out by silver chloride titration. In little over 100
yards in a transverse direction, salinity fell from 1.24 percent to 0.066
percent CI. This decrease of salinity from the beaches to the centre of
the island is normal. Variations also occur in a longitudinal direction
for example, from 0.070 percent to 0.011 percent in two hundred yards.
Water from well No. 3, having a salinity of O.138 percent CI was unfit
for drinking or washing. Well Wo. 5, at 0.050, was all right for wash-
ing, but unpleasant to drink, while water from the best source, 0.002
percent CI, was indistinguishable from fresh water. Most wells are
presumably sited by guess ; and a preliminary survey would obviously be
of great value when a new one is to be built.

Salinity also varies with time, due to rainfall and evaporation.
Wells which are normally sweet became brackish in the drought of 1950.
The following table shows the variation of one well at intervals of a
few days, with the amount of rain recorded in the intervening periods.

TABLE NO. 2

Variation of salinity in

well No. 6 at Bikenibeu

Date

Percentage

Rainfall between analyses

Chloride

(in inches)

April 26

0.054

1951 28

0.047

O.965

30

0.01+4

0.375

May 1

0.025

0.16

k

0.029

O.76

8

0.024

1.72

9

0.024

O.llfc

12

0.028

0.01

The extent of the variation appears to vary from place to place,
shown by Table No. 3 which gives the analyses of the nine wells on
two different days. The tendency appears to be for the most saline
wells to fluctuate most.

-10-

TABLE NO. 3

Salinity of the Bikenibeu wells on two dates
(expressed as percentage of chloride)

Date

of Sampling:

Well

6 -April -51

12-May-51

Percentage

No.

Reduction:

1

i
0.93

0.526

*3-*

2

0.U2

0.288

31.^

3

0.15

0.163

- 8.6

k

0.05^

0.0^0

25-9

5

0.073

0.070

k.l

6

0.070

0.028

60.0

7

O.XQk

0.068

34.6

8

0.105

O.O76

27-6

9

O.585

0.208

6k.h

Plants differ very greatly in their tolerance of salinity, man-
grove obviously being the most tolerant since it grows in sea water.
"Te Ngea" ( Pemphis acidula ), a saltbush with very hard wood, grows very
close to the water, mainly on the lagoon shore, and the two shrubs "Te Mao"
( Scaevola sericea ) and "Te Ren" ( Tournefortia argentea ) grow everywhere,
even on the beach crest on the ocean side where they are exposed to salt
spray. "Te Uri", another shrub or small tree ( Guettarda speciosa ) is
slightly less tolerant, as dead plants can frequently be seen on the beach
crest; however, many seemingly -de ad trees sprout again from the base of
the trunk. "Te Itai" (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a hard wood often grow-
ing close to the water on the lagoon shore. Coconuts and Pandanus both
grow fairly close to the sea but not as close as any of the foregoing
plants. As mentioned earlier, many coconuts growing on small islets or
on narrow promontaries were killed in the 1950 drought. At Bikenibeu,
healthy coconuts were growing on the ocean side of the first well which
on analysis after a fairly dry period showed 1.2^ per cent of chloride.
Table No. 2 however, shows that this high figure is not constant. The
first effect of severe drought is to reduce the size of the young leaves
of coconut palms growing under hard conditions; this results in a typical

-11-

flat-topped appearance. Trees were seen at Temaiku which had been
severely affected and which were just starting to grow normally again.

Introduced flowering trees and others are frequently seen in the
villages, which are all on the lagoon side. For example, at Marenanuka,
Frangipani and Oleander were growing and flowering on a somewhat restricted
scale, setting few seeds. These trees were near a well in which the water
contained 0.0^2 per cent of chloride, a fairly low figure. Breadfruit
trees in the same area were healthy, though in most villages individual
trees here and there had been killed off by drought.

GARDENING EXPERIMENTS

With the exception of kumala (sweet potato) cultivation, such as at
Buota and Betio (in occasional patches) gardening is confined to Europ-
eans, who frequently bring soil into the Colony and grow plants in drums
with some success Selected black soil also gives good results especially
if enriched with compost; but the effect of added organic matter such as
leaves, manure, and fish offal appears to be confined to the first or first
two crops only. Excellent tomatoes, China cabbage, English cabbage and
water melons were seen on such selected soil (grown by Mr. Carter at
Bonriki). Lettuce can also be grown. Frequent watering with good water
is of course necessary. Pumpkins will grow in ordinary good soil A
climbing bean (Dolichos lablab) at Betio was seen which spread over the
roof Of a house, yielding well; but another at Bonriki in prepared soil
suffered severely from chlorosis and yielded no fruit.

Seeds were taken from Fiji in the hope of establishing a leguminous
cover but results were disappointing. In the first nursery, a good site
was selected by Dr. Catala to -the west of the Bikinibeu house and natural
conditions were observed - no watering or manuring was given, but the
rainfall after sowing was good.

Sown 2k March 1951 ;

Leucaena glauca - 'vaivai ' - grew rapidly at first, slowing down later -
3 to k inches in two months. Slight paleness shown after one month.
Likely to persist.

Centrosema pubescens - Never advanced beyond cotyledonary leaves .

Calopogonium mucunoides - First true leaves were yellow and soon died,
the cotyledons persisting for some time before dying.

Sown 27 March 1951:

Ca.ianus indicus - Pigeon Pea - Died after producing two or three leaves.
One only still persisted after two months.

Desman thus virgatus - Appeared yellow and grew extremely slowly.

Pueraria phaseoloides - Hawaiian Puero - k or 5 seedlings only. Given
soil from near Puero roots at Sigatoka Agricultural Station, Fiji- One
grew very well until checked by the attack of a leaf -cutting bee; the
others small but of a fairly good colour. Hopeful .

-12-

Stylosanthes guianensis - Growth stopped after 1 to 2 inches. Yellow.

Panicum maximum - Guinea grass from Sigatoka Agricultural Station. A
few plants germinated after a month and had reached 2 inches by June.

P. maximum var. color atum - Purple Guinea. Grew rather better than the
common guinea grass , but neither is expected to survive.

Sorghum verticelliflorum - Kavirondo Sorghum. Whitish yellow - stopped
growth at 6 inches .

Canavalia ensifornis - Sword bean. Rapid growth after germination fol-
lowed by dying-off of the growing point in every plant except one.

Rice Bean - yellow leaves, but still growing after 5 weeks. (Very
thickly planted). Growth appeared to be stopping at 2 inches.

Pawpaws and water melon were also sown for the sake of comparison;
the pawpaws made slow growth but the melon seedlings died off.

Later sowings by Dr. Catala on 2^ April 1951 were also disappointing.

A second nursery was made to the east of the house at Bikinibeu and
different treatments applied. Calopo, Vaivai, Pigeon Pea and Kavirodono
Sorghum were sown in k parallel beds which were divided into 8 sections
by divisions at right angles to the lengths of the beds. Soil from cor-
responding legume roots in Fiji was applied to half of the plots of each
of the three legumes.

Each group of k plots was then given k treatments as follows:

(1) an WPK mixture: sulphate of ammonia, muriate of potash and super
phosphate;

(2) a solution of trace elements, including iron, manganese, magnesium,
copper, zinc, molybdenum and boron;

(3) Coconut meal. Application of this was delayed until early May as a
result of its being misplaced on the ship.

(k) Control.

The seeds were sown thinly and the seedlings were watered twice in
their early stages.

The legume soil benefitted the Pigeon Pea but not the other legumes.
Where it was applied, the Pigeon Pea had reached 2 feet and was still
growing at the end of May, although attacked by the leaf eating bee. The
untreated plants had mainly died out.

The NPK manures gave no effect.

The trace elements gave a slight response on the Kavirondo Sorghum -
slightly better growth with a better colour.

-13-

The coconut meal had insufficient time to give results by the end of

May

The calopo in this nursery reached the 2nd and 3rd leaf stages, hut
these leaves were very pale. The Leucaena grew as in the first nursery.
The Pigeon Pea looked as if it might reach maturity where it had received
a sprinkling of soil. The Kavirondo Sorghum was a better colour than in
the first nursery but was decidedly yellow. However, it appeared to be
still growing at 8 to 10 inches.

The results obtained from the nurseries are mainly negative but are
nevertheless very interesting. It remains to be seen whether the Leucaena
will become established. Greater response to the trace elements had been
anticipated. The delayed application of coconut meal was unfortunate
because it seems likely that it may have considerable effect over a period
of time.

LIVESTOCK

Pigs are kept by the majority of householders in the villages.
Most of the pens, which are usually just behind the village, are simply
four pieces of Airstrip matting forming a square. Higher walls of two
sections are not usual. The alternative to these iron strips is a wall
of interlaced coconut trunks. Pens are usually in the shade; shelter is
usually provided (by plaited coconut leaf) if they are in the open.

The pigs are of varied breeding; the only definite statement that can
be made is that no Tamworth influence was seen. All are small. This is
not entirely due to nutritional deficiencies as a boar imported from Fiji and
h'is off spring • are noticeably bigger than average. The most frequent type
is a porker weighing up to 200 lbs. at a year or so; but unfortunately no
details could be gathered as no pigs of known age were found. The people
simply do not know. Interest in breeding is very low; boars were seen
which were no more than 50 lbs. in weight - little runts not much bigger
than a decent-sized weaner. On the other hand, a son of the Fiji-bred
boar mentioned above (which was imported by the Catholic Mission at
Teaoraereke k years ago), was seen at Buariki. This pig was about 2 years
old, well grown and much above the average for Tarawa. It was recently
castrated because it got out of its pen and caused trouble; so it is now
being fattened up. It was less trouble to castrate it than than to make
a strong pen. When the people in this village were asked if, supposing
a good boar was available, they would pay one shilling service fee, they
suggested giving half the litter at birth to the owner of the boar
instead.

Litter sizes appear to be very small and the average number reared
is probably only about three. Nutrition is almost certainly the limiting
factor. Feeding does not vary greatly; indeed, it cannot, so limited are
the foods. They comprise coconuts, herbs, and fish bones. Two to five
coconuts are fed either once or twice a day. The common method is to
feed once a day, giving water in the evening. The two small herbs 'Te Mtea'
and 'Te Wao' ( Portulaca lutea and Sesuvium portulacastrum ) are commonly
gathered by the children. Both are plentiful. Grass and babai leaves may

-Ik-

also "be given, and possibly 'Te Bero' ( Ficus sp.). Some people give toddy
presumably what is left over from their personal requirements.

Emaciated pigs were seen which were neglected "by their owners and not
fed regularly. Also one gilt was seen which had the same food as another,
neighbouring, fat sow, hut apparently this one could not digest coconut,
and so was very thin. The gilt was little more than 50 lbs. and had one
pig of about 25 lbs. The fat sow had had three litters; six in the first
all died in a week, nine in the second all died in five days, and one was
reared out of seven in the third litter.

In Eita village there were 12 gilts and sows, 2 boars, 10 weaners and
porkers, and about 6 young pigs running loose. In Bikinibeu there were
18 gilts and sows, 2 boars, 9 weaners and porkers, and about 1^ young pigs.
(Both villages have populations of 12^).

Paralysis of the hind quarters was seen in one sow, which had full
use of its forelegs. One sow was seen with a swelling of the udder.
Slow growth of some pigs was presumed to be due to worms. Lice were
reported but not seen.

The listlessness of the people regarding pig husbandry and the un-
availability of feeding stuffs to give a balanced ration combine to make
significant improvement in pork production unlikely.

POULTRY

The majority of birds run loose in the villages, but sometimes
fowl runs are seen, made of 'Te Ba' (coconut mid-ribs, which are 8 to 10
feet long). There is a great variation in breed and size, ranging from
well-bred Rhode Island Reds kept by various European houses on Bairiki
(such as the Residency), down to bush fowls weighing only a pound or two.
Occasionally good looking birds are seen in the villages, and some birds
live wild in the bush.

Their food is mainly coconuts, with what else they can forage. At
the mission at Teaoraereke, a big increase in egg production following
the feeding of fish was mentioned. This indicates that considerable
increases in poultry production should not be difficult to achieve.

Ducks are not very common, but some Muscovies were seen, one with a
very good brood of ducklings.

Wo geese were seen.

TOOLS

Tools used in agriculture are very few and very simple. For cut-
ting the many coconut roots which are in the soil everywhere, a spade
with a circular blade is preferred. The blade is flat, and about 6
inches in diameter. The handle is commonly 5 feet of 3/U inch pipe, which
gives momentum to a cutting stroke. This spade, 'Te Rereba', is mainly
used for digging or extending 'babai ' pits .

-15-

Just as a Fijian is not often without his cane knife, so a Gilbertese
usually has a machete type of knife, which is used for opening drinking
nuts, cutting copra, and so on.

A mallet, 'Te Ikuiku'3s made out of 'Te Ngea 1 , a hard wood shrub
( Pemphi s ac i dula ) . Such mallets are used for beating flat the mid-ribs
of pandanus leaves.

Other domestic tools are coconut scrapers (similar to those in Fiji)
and scrapers for pandanus fruit. There are of course various articles for
fishing, ranging from canoes down to fishhooks.

IMPROVEMENTS POSSIBLE IN THE NATIVE AGRICULTURE AND
PROBLEMS REQUIRING FURTHER INVESTIGATION

The subjects requiring investigation are divisible into the problem
of increasing exports, which means increasing copra production ; and the
problem of increasing food production in order to provide for the increas-
ing population, to lessen the dependence on overseas surjplies, and to give
a more varied diet . .

An immediate improvement is possible in the quality of copra by
reducing the interval between cutting and drying, and by taking more care
during drying. At present, the coconut owners spend a day cutting copra
and bring the wet copra back to the village for drying next day - an in-
terval of up to 2k- hours. To produce white copra, this interval should
be reduced to less than k hours. To prevent contamination with sand and
dirt, and to speed the drying process, drying trays should be erected above
ground level, and should be provided with movable covers of galvanised
iron or other rain -proof material.

The use of hot-air driers, for the production of good quality copra
even in rainy weather, should be investigated. However, care is needed
to prevent a trade developing in green copra between growers and Co-
operative Societies, as this would inevitably cause delayed drying and
consequent reduction in quality.

To encourage the production of better quality copra it will be neces-
sary to introduce a grading system* coupled with reasonable price dif-
ferentials between grades. Particular attention should be paid to thorough
drying of copra. Encouragement of half -nut copra (obtained by husking
prior to splitting, instead of by extraction using a knife) would result
in less fragmentation and less dust, and probably higher oil content; but
a longer drying period is needed. Finally, quality should not be lost
during storage by allowing insect infestations tc develop; a routine spray-
ing of the sheds is recommended.

Management of the coconut groves could with certainty be improved
by weeding the bushes and germinating nuts, by removal of aged and non-
producing palms, and by a prohibition on burning within the groves.

* Copra grading was instituted in 1957.

-i6-

It is highly probable that increased yields would also result from
selective thinning in most places, and "by the establishment of a leguminous
ground cover; but these should be investigated before being advocated on
a wide scale. The cover crops Calopo and Centro were unsuccessful at
Bikenibeu but the beach pea Vigna marina , which flourishes on Funafuti is
more likely to be suitable. There is insufficient evidence on which to
base a firm recommendation for optimum spacing, but it appears that ten
yards is too wide and gives insufficient ground shade. Eight yards
triangular planting is tentatively suggested.

Very considerable losses occur in certain places through delayed
collection and incomplete collection of nuts, resulting in partial or
total losses through germination of the nuts. This problem is economic
rather than agricultural, and is related to the problem of better utili-
sation of land held by absentee owners. A possibility worth investigation
is the alteration of the export tax on copra into a land tax. This is
considered possible since an overwhelming proportion of the land is used
for coconut production. It would be necessary either for the tax rate to
vary with the year's productivity, which depends on the rainfall or
that there should be a flat rate with a reduction in drought years. It
might also be necessary to reduce the rate in infertile areas.

The most important long-term measure in improving the crop lies in
better planting of better nuts on unplanted land. Wo areas were seen on
Tarawa which require felling and replanting, and it is not known if this
would be justified on other islands. Selection of seed nuts of good shape
from high yielding trees followed by rigorous selection of seedlings would
not be difficult to carry out, but does not appear to have been thought of.

Recent figures for copra produced by the Gilbertese may be mentioned
here. They are from the Colony copra Board's Annual Report for the year
ending 31st March, 1958:

1951 1952 1953 195^ 1955 1956 (drought)

M19 3,956 7,705 5,770 7A80 2,900 tons.

It is certain that more 'babai ' could be grown, mainly by greater
attention to the existing area. Yields under different methods of manage-
ment require study. For example, the pig manure is all wasted. The legume
Glir i cidia grows on Betio and Bairiki and could possibly be grown round
the banks of pits, and used for mulching together with the pig manure.
Varietal differences such as salt toleration, rate of growth, and yield
are unknown. A comparison of the yields of Colocasia and the two main
Cyrtosperma varieties "Te Katutu' and 'Te Ikaraoi ■ over different inter-
vals of time would be very interesting. Finally, a method is required to
encourage the sale of "babai 1 through the Co-operative Society to the
people on Bairiki and Betio.

A point scarcely agricultural yet not out of place here concerns the
use which might be made of mangrove; considerable protection could be given
to the road where it crosses between islets by judicious planting of seed-
lings. The first stage of land reclamation on the lagoon shore could be
construction of fish ponds, their banks being protected by mangrove.

-17-

Little improvement in pig keeping is possible without a big increase
in interest among the owners. Selective "breeding following the use of
good imported hoars could give big results if combined with better
feeding standards. It is certain that a considerable amount of fish is
necessary in the ration. Because of the difficulties of feeding, it is
unlikely that pig keeping will ever get out of the "backyard" stage.

The poultry are probably well adapted to a frugal life and again,
breeding for better size and egg laying could not be successful unless
accompanied by better feeding, which however presents no great difficulty
on a small scale.

No geese were seen; it is suggested that they should be tried, for
they could make good use of the grass where it grows well, and provide
animal protein to the human diet. Provision of grazing for them would
also benefit the coconuts.

Many of the problems mentioned above could be studied on a small
station, provided that appropriate personnel were available. The area
around the house built at Bikenibeu is considered to be sufficiently
typical. A plant introduction garden could be located near the fresh-
water well. About 15 acres would suffice in the first instance.

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge with gratitude the help given
by His Honour the Resident Commissioner, the Director of Education, and
many other officers of Government, and by Chief Kaubure Taniera and
Assistant Master Toki.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

Wo. 7^
Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony

by

Peter Child

Issued "by

THE, PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.

October 15, i960

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Part A: Resident Birds 1+

I. Sternidae (Terns and Noddies) k

II. Sulidae (Gannets or Boobies) 12

III. Fregatidae (Frigate-birds) l4

IV. Phaethontidae (Tropic-birds or Bo'sun birds) l6

V. Procellariidae (Shearwaters and Petrels) 18

VI. Ardeidae (Herons) 21

VII. Columbidae (Pigeons and Doves) 22

VIII. Phasianidae (Quails and Pheasants) 23

IX. Sylviidae (Warblers) 24

X. Psittacidae (Parrots) 24

Part B: Migratory Birds 25

I. Charadriidae (Turnstones and Plovers) 26

II. Scolopacidae (Tattlers, Curlews, Godwits) 28

III. Cuculidae (Cuckoos) 33

IV. Anatidae (Ducks) 33

Appendix A: Protected birds 35

Appendix B: Some, common trees associated with birds 35

Bibliography 36

-1-

Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony

by
Peter Child, B.Sc, Dip. Ed. (N.Z.)

INTRODUCTION

The following notes and observations by an amateur bird-watcher are
the result of additions and amendments to a booklet which I wrote while
Education Officer at Tarawa, Gilbert Islands, and originally published in
January, 195&, as a guide for native schoolteachers of the colony.

I had lived from August 19^3 to December 19kh in the Ellice Islands
as a radio operator in the Coastwatching Organisation during the Second
World War. No systematic notes on the birds were made during this period
although many details were later recollected, especially when these islands
were again revisited during the second tour of duty for the three years
February 1953 to February 195&- This recent post was a travelling one
and I was fortunate in being able to visit nearly all the islands in the
Colony with the exception of the Northern Line Islands and the uninhabited
islands of the Phoenix group. (For information concerning these exceptions
acknowledgement is made to the authors of relevant publications quoted in
the bibliography accompanying this paper, and to acquaintances who had
visited these places and supplied me with verbal reports.) The nature of
my work generally necessitated living on each island for periods of several
days and thus allowed opportunity for studying the bird-life and visiting
(usually by canoe) many remote islets and breeding places which were not
inhabited by the native people and which the casual visitor never reaches.
These are, of course, the real undisturbed bird sanctuaries of the Colony,
where the avifauna is at its best and least afraid of man.

It should be mentioned that no comprehensive survey of the whole
Colony has been carried out by a competent ornithologist, and thus there
is a noticeable gap in the available literature of the Pacific birds. For
the same reason the subspecific names of birds in the western parts of the
Colony (i.e. the Gilbert and Ellice groups and Ocean Island) are somewhat
in doubt, but the most likely one I have obtained is given in the follow-
ing notes.

The scientific nomenclature follows that given in Peters' "Checklist
of the Birds of the World."

Geography : The Colony comprises 37 coral atolls and islands spanning the
central Pacific Ocean. While the land area is very small, approximately
3o9 square miles, the distances between islands and groups of islands are
vast. From Ocean Island in the west at longitude 169 35' E. it is some
2200 miles to Christmas Island at longitude 157° 28' W. in the east; and
from Washington in the nortg at latitude V 3 7' N. it is some 1000 miles
to Niulakita at latitude 10 k-5 1 S. in the south. Such a rectangle of

* hi Brandon St., Alexandra, Central Otago, New Zealand.

-2-

sea, though not exclusive to the Colony, covers an area of more than two
million square miles.

These islands form four groups: there are 16 Gilbert Islands, 9
Ellice Islands, 8 Phoenix Islands and 3 Line Islands; with Ocean Island
as an outlier from the Gilbert Islands. The 8 Phoenix Islands include the
British -American Condominium of Canton and Enderbury (1939); also, three
of the British islands of the Phoenix group, Birnie, McKean, and Phoenix,
are uninhabited. The Gilbert and Ellice Islands form a chain lying in a
N.W. - S.E. direction astride the equator between longitudes 172 E. and
l80° E. The Phoenix Islands are scattered south of the equator between
longitudes 171° W. and 175 W. and the three Line Islands, Washington,
Fanning and Christmas, lie in a N.W. - S.E. line north of the equator
between 157 W. and l60° w.

Geologically Ocean Island stands apart, being an island of the
elevated type, its highest point being 280 feet above sea-level. This
island is approximately 1500 acres in extent and contains rich deposits of
almost pure phosphate of lime on top of the coral base. All the other is-
lands belong to the Central Pacific "area of subsidence, " having been formed
by the upgrowth of coral around the flanks cf mountains long since submerged.
Most are atolls, with a ring of reefs and islets enclosing lagoons, the
land surface rarely rising more than 15 feet above sea level. A few of
the islands are not typical atolls but consist of solid masses of limestone
surrounded by fringing reef, one or two having small land-locked lagoons.
One (Washington), has a land-locked lagoon which has become a freshwater
lake with peat bogs surrounding it.

Bird-life in general : To one who has spent nearly all his life in
inland New Zealand, the experience of living so close to the sea (in fact,
with the sea) on tropical atolls and observing the very different kinds of
birds from those one has been accustomed to, has been a source of great
enjoyment and surprise. Prominent among the novelties were

(1) the absence of "singing" birds;

(2) the uncommoness of true land birds, by far the majority being

oceanic birds and migratory shore birds;

(3) the large number of migratory species which make these atolls

their winter quarters, or a 'halfway house' on their long

flights north and south;
(h) the noisiness of some species during the night;
(5) the absence of any very small birds (except the Christmas

Island "canary" which I have not seen).
Perhaps the food -gathering of sea-birds, demanding as it does much time
and prolonged journeys on the wing, is the factor which determines their
sizes and wing-spans. In any case, it makes observations and identific-
ations easier for the bird-watcher, and the uncomplicated backgrounds of
sea and sand make the task beautifully simple in comparison with the in-
land and forest habitats of New Zealand.

It seems almost certain that there has been a general decrease in
the resident bird population of the Colony over the past two or theee
human generations, particularly among the more timid and ground-nesting
species. Old men who can remember back before the turn of the century
have often told me of birds which used to nest on their islands but which

-3-

are now rarely, if ever, seen. There also exist some Gilbertese bird -names
which the present generation are unable to associate with any particular
species now known to them. There appear to be four reasons for this trend:
(l), a rapidly increasing human population since the cessation of activities
of the "black-birders" about 1880, with subsequent expansion to previously
uninhabited islets, increase in killing for food, and general disturbance
of colonies; (the black-birders were slave traders who took natives to work
in plantations in Mexico and guano mines in Peru.); (2), considerable shoot-
ing for food and feathers by the early traders, which may have wiped out
small breeding colonies; (3), the increasing numbers of dogs, cats, and
rats (the last-names especially since the Second World War), with consequent
destruction of eggs and young; and (k) , the disturbance caused by military
occupation and the construction of airstrips on some islands during 19^2-
k6. Ground -nesting species also suffer from the predations of crabs,
especially hermit crabs.

The Gilbertese as a race have apparently never been great bird-
eaters, whilst the Ellice people have (and still are). In spite of legal
protection, it is not an uncommon sight to see a party of Ellice youth vho
have been working in the bush return with a "bag" of plucked noddies, for
roasting over a coconut -husk fire, (in the Gilberts it is mainly in the
southern 'drought 'islands where any birds are eaten.) Other birds occa-
sionally eaten are frigates and boobies (caught while asleep on coconut
palms), pigeons (trapped in special snares or taken as nestlings), and
curlews and herons (which are sometimes shot). The eggs of the Grey-backed
Tern which breeds in thousands in the Phoenix group, and the Sooty Tern on
Christmas Island, are eaten in times of food shortage.

Seabirds have always been reliable guides to interisland voyagers
and fishermen, particularly in this Colony where the low-lying atolls are
invisible from a few miles out, and where fish form a large proportion of
the native diet. The activities of noddies, terns, and others often betray
the presence of good shoals of bonito, trevally, and other useful food
fish; their regular excursions from islets to fishing -grounds, especially
in the early morning and evening, provide a valuable guide for canoe -
captains as to the whereabouts of land. Probably much of the old Gilbert-
ese navigation was based upon the regular flying-routes of seabirds. In
the Ellice the "tautai' (fishing -captains) have many omens and beliefs
associated with the calls, movements and other mannerisms of sea and shore
birds .

The scattered islands of the Colony are situated on or near the
equator and, although there are occasional stormy westerly periods from
November to February, the daily weather and temperatures remain remarkably
constant, with prevailing winds from easterly quarters, throughout the year.
Because of this great uniformity of seasons the nesting periods of birds
are often prolonged affairs, and there is nothing like the same urgency
and definiteness one is accustomed to in temperate lands. The Brown Noddy,
for example, has been observed nesting at every month of the year.' It has
also been established that the Sooty Tern, and possibly the Grey-backed
Tern, have breeding intervals of less than twelve months.

The commonest and most widely distributed species is probably the
Black Noddy, while one of the rarest is the Brown -winged Tern. It is most
likely that other species, especially migratory waders, will be reported

from the Colony from time to time. The names are shown as follows:

Scientific Name (Peter's Checklist) English Name
Ellice Name Gilhertese Name

Some alternatives are given in brackets.

PART A: RESIDENT BIRDS

I. STERNIDAE (TERNS AND NODDIES)

TERNS or "sea swallows" are the most conspicuous group of birds of
this region. The tern family consists of birds of smallish body size
having long narrow and pointed wings and long forked tails. The legs are
very short and feet small and webbed. The bills are straight, tapered
and quite long. When in flight over lagoons or the ocean searching for
food the bill is characteristically pointed downwards more or less at
right angles to the line of the body. They dive with folded wings from
a considerable height into the water and quickly emerge again with their
prey, which consists of small live fish, crustaceans, cuttlefish and other
small creatures from near the surface of the sea. They prefer live food,
and are not scavengers like gulls.

Terns are sociable birds, living and breeding together in huge
colonies or "terneries", the noise of which is sometimes deafening, even
throughout the night. Males and females are alike in all species. All
except the White Tern lay their eggs in hollows on sandy or shingly beaches.
Most tropical terns lay only one egg but the black-naped Tern, and very
occasionally the Grey-backed Tern, often lays two. Even among terns of
one species eggs vary considerably in size, shape and colouring, and hardly
any two specimens are exactly alike. The eggs and chicks are usually
protectively coloured and difficult to spot among the stones and sand.

1. Sterna sumatrana sumatrana . Black-naped Tern

Akiaki - Kiakia .

This small tern is easily distinguished by the black band around the
head above the eyes and extending down the nape. Except for the mantle
and upper wings, which are a very pale grey, most of the bird is white.
The primary wing feathers often have dark grey or blackish tips; the bill
and feet are black, and the webs also black. The crown is white. Young
birds in immature plumage have somewhat darker mottled colouring.

This bird is common to most western lagoon islands, especially where
there are small uninhabited islets of sandbanks such as bikeman (Tarawa),
Abanekeneke (Onotoa), Pukasavilivili (Funafuti), and Teafuave (Nukufetau),
which are the favourite breeding places. It does not appear to be present
in the Line Islands and is relatively uncommon in the Phoenix.

Nesting extends from January to September. The nest is just a shallow
depression in the sand or among small coral shingle or among high tide

-5-

debris, sometimes sheltered by a tuft of grass or a low saltbush or other
shrub. Two eggs are frequently laid. They are smaller than the White
Tern's and are pale greenish -blue in background colour with pale mauve spots
and blotches all over, and dark brown blotches and markings superimposed.
On shingly beaches the eggs are very difficult to see. The average size
of 11 eggs measured was 37 x 26 mm.

Sterna fuscata oahuensis - Sooty Tern-

(Wideawake Tern)

Talaliki . Keeu .

(Kereekere)

The Sooty Tern is a rare bird in the Gilbert and Ellice groups,
there being small colonies only at Teafualiku (Funafuti), Numatong
(Nonouti), and Oneke (Kuria). They are very common in the Phoenix and
Line Islands, where they sometimes nest among their cousins the Grey-backed
Terns. The adult bird has a broad white band on the forehead extending
above the eyes; the crown, nape and upperparts are dull sooty black, while
the underparts are white, with some greyish feathers under the tail, the
bill and feet are black.

According to observations made by Dr. J. P. Chap in, an American
ornithologist, and verbal reports to me by the British District Officers
who have been stationed on Christmas Island, the Sooty Tern has a breeding
interval of only six months there, nesting taking place regularly every
June and December.

King quotes a Gilbertese living there as stating the nesting seasons
to be December -March and June -August. I have not been able to determine
whether a similar cycle occurs in the Gilbert and Ellice colonies; nesting
was in full swing with fresh eggs at Nonouti in May, the colony being about
120 birds. One older egg, two flying young and three adults were seen at
Funafuti in September, and according to locals the nesting was nearing its
end there at that time, the normal population being in "hundreds"; between
nesting periods the birds migrate elsewhere - the locals say to the
Phoenix group.

A large single egg is laid in a shallow hollow in the sand; it is
pale bluish or buff in ground colour, with purplish brown spots and
blotches. The eggs vary considerably in size, shape and colourings. The
average of 13 eggs measured at the Nonouti colony was ^9 x 3 1 )- ■• Fish-
erman, ships ' crews and islanders often collect the eggs for food where
they are common.

The high-pitched screech of the Sooty Tern is imitated in the common
Gilbertese name of "keeu".

-6-

3. . Sterna anaethetus anaethetus . Brown -winged Tern.

.? ?

I have not found anyone in the Colony able to name this bird from a
description. Blackman states that it breeds in the 'Phoenix and Ellice
Islands ' . They were recorded at McKean Island, Phoenix group, by Graf fe
in 1863 (Finsch and Hartlaub 1867). Sharpe and Whitmee (1878) listed it
without giving any details in a collection from the Ellice Islands.
Buddie observed several pairs among a large colony of Grey-backed Terns
at Canton in June, 1937* but no sign of nesting was discovered.

3 birds seen by the writer at Teafualiku islet, Funafuti (Ellice Is.),
seemed to be of this species; they were flying but appeared to be an adult
pair and an immature. The natives said these birds nest there but could
not be distinguished from the more common Sooty Tern, and there was no
separate vernacular name for them. (The adult is similar to the Sooty
Tern but is smaller and slightly lighter in colour, and has a narrower
white band on the head which extends back beyond the eye. The bill is
black, the legs and feet dark grey or black with brownish webs . ) The
nesting habits were said to be similar to those of the Sooty Tern. During
the same month (September, 1955) a young bird brought from Funafuti was
examined at Nukufetau, and answered the description given by Alexander for
the Brown -winged Tern, and its measurements indicated a smaller bird than
the Sooty Tern. (Bill: l.U; tarsus: 0.9; length: l4.0; wingspan: 28 inches.)
However as the colouring of the two species is almost identical, and as
it was only the immature which was handled, the identification remains in
some doubt. It seems possible that a small colony of this species mingles
with the Sooty Terns during the breeding season at Funafuti.

k. Sterna lunata. Grey-backed Tern.

(Bridled Tern; Spectacled Tern)

Talaalof i . Tarangongo .

( Maningongo )

These birds are no longer breeding in the Gilbert and Ellice groups,
although it seems that they did so on a few islands in days gone by. They
still breed in immense colonies in the Phoenix Islands. There is a very
large colony on the southeastern end of Canton.

The adult is similar in build to the Sooty Tern but slightly smaller,
and the upperparts are soft grey instead of sooty black; the underparts
are white and the feet and bill black. The head is black except for a
white forehead and a white band extending back above each eye.

The birds nest on the ground, laying their eggs in hollows among
stones and creepers; sometimes the hollow is lined with small bits of coral
and rock (Bailey once recorded two nests with two eggs in each, at Canton.)
Undoubtedly May-June is the height of the nesting season as recorded by
observers on Canton, but, according to one boy informant of mine, a native
from Hull Island, the species has two nesting seasons per year, the second
being in December.

-7-

The eggs of this species are sometimes eaten at Manra (Sydney) and
Orona (Hull), especially during times of drought when food is scarce.

5- Thalasseus bergii . Crested Tern.

(Swift Tern)

Tala Karakara.

(Talaalofi) (Kabiniwa)

The eastern subspecies is T. b. cristatus while that in the west is
more likely to be T. b. pelecanoides , according to Baker.

With a wingspan of about kO inches, this is easily the largest tern
in the Colony. It is unknown at Nui, Niutao and Vaitupu, but otherwise
appears to be present in small numbers on most islands.

The crown and nape are black with elongated feathers from the nape
forming a crest from which the bird is named. The upperparts are light
and dark greys while the neck and underparts are white. The feet are
blackish with dark webs. A conspicuous feature which helps identify this
bird is the large yellow bill. It dives for fish from a considerable
height, and is often seen hovering over the lagoon shallows uttering the
harsh cries from which the Gilbertese name 'karakara' is obtained. The
other name, 'kabiniwa' means 'canoe -hull' and probably refers to the
shapely body of this fine bird.

Crested Terns are said to nest in small colonies on sand or gravel
bars similar to those occupied by the Black-naped Terns. However, no one
was ever able to show me an actual nest or egg, and in none of the liter-
ature is there a report of finding them. It is said that one egg is laid
between December and February. I saw several immatures in July at Onotoa,
and Moul records one from there on August 19 • In May an immature bird
was being fed small fish by a parent on the lagoon reef at Betio, Tarawa.

NODDIES belong to the same family as terns, and in appearance and
habits they are similar to terns; the two most widely distributed noddies
found in the Colony are, however, much darker in colour than any of the
terns and so are easily distinguished from them. The fork of the tail is
not so deep on noddies as on terns, and in flight noddies often have the
tail closed so that the fork is not noticeable at all.

Their food is similar to that of terns but, unlike terns, they do
not dive below water for it from a height but skim around fairly close
to the surface and plunge in briefly when the prey is sighted. Although
their feet are webbed noddies spend very little time on the surface of the
water as their feathers soon become waterlogged; occasionally flocks of
birds are seen during fishing operations resting on the ocean or lagoon.

-8-

6. Anous stolidus pileatus . Brown Noddy.

(Common Noddy)

Ngongo . Io .

(Uii)

This is the largest of the noddies and is readily identified "by its
dark brown colour. The crown and nape are pale grey, almost white on the
forehead, and there is a "black band from the bill to the eye. There is
a prominent white semicircle under each eye. The rest of the body is dark
brown with lighter brown shades on the underparts. The bill is black and
the feet brownish -black with yellowish webs.

They are fairly common on all islands of the Colony. In some places,
such as Canton and Christmas Island, they have been known to nest on the
ground among coral blocks, but the favourite nesting place is the butt of
a coconut frond, in the axil between the butt and the main trunk; this
site distinguishes them from the Black Noddy which nests further out on
the petiole where the small leaflets begin. At Onotoa two nests were
found in the whorls of leaves of the pandanus.

A rough nest is made of twigs, dead leaves, roots, and coconut fibre.
One large egg is laid, pale buff in ground colour with large purplish -brown
spots and blotches, more dense towards the wider end. Average size of
eggs measured at Nonouti was 52 x 3^ nan. Nesting seems to be most common
between March and September, but eggs may be found in different localities
during any month of the year.

The adults utter a very harsh cry, "krrrrr", from the tree-tops,-
especially when their nests are disturbed. They are sometimes nicknamed
•the angry birds' by the natives because of this habit.

7- Anous minutus minutus . Black Noddy.

(White -capped Noddy)

Taketake . Mangkiri .

(Lakia) (Kunei; Takiri)

This is a smaller dark-coloured noddy, and probably the commonest
bird in the Colony, being listed in large numbers on all islands visited
by the writer. Its general colour is very black with a noticeable con-
trasting white crown and forehead and a white semicircle under the eye.
The bill is black and the feet dark brown, almost black.

The birds congregate in large colonies, especially during nesting
time, and their continual chatter can be heard from afar. As mentioned
above, one of their favourite nesting places is on palm fronds where the
small leaflets begin to grow out from the rib, and on some trees one may
find a nest on almost every near -horizontal frond. On some islands
Tournefortia and Pisonia are the favourite nesting trees, while on others
with dense colonies where trees are limited nests may be found on the
ground. Several nests may occur on one branch, and even on coconut palms
two and three on one frond are not uncommon. The nests are roughly

-9-

constucted of small twigs and roots, dead leaves, old feathers and other
scraps of rubbish, stuck together with droppings, the whole forming an un-
tidy and smelly mess. In dense colonies the ammoniacal smell of excreta
is almost overpowering, there being a thick coating of decaying leaves and
droppings over the ground and lower branches. Only one egg is laid, cream-
ish or buff or bluish-olive in ground colour, with purplish -brown blotches
and spots, more dense near the wider end. The eggs vary in size, shape
and colourings but are always smaller than those of the Brown Noddy. Aver-
age of 15 eggs measured was ^3 x 30 mm.

The season lasts mainly from February to October, with the greatest
activity perhaps in June, but some eggs may be found in different places
all the year round. There are very large breeding colonies of thousands
of birds on Numatong (Nonouti), Tabuarorae (Onotoa), Namauri (Tabiteuea)
and Nikumaroro (Gardner Island). Smaller colonies are scattered through-
out all the other islands. I once spent a night among the Numatong colony;
the smell and commotion prevailed throughout and this, together with the
perambulations of ghost crabs, dispelled all ideas of a night's rest. Nod-
dies seem to be ever restless, except during the heat of the day which
seems to be their quietest period, when they sit among the treetops calling
and preening; probably, however, most of the birds are out at sea fishing
at this time and, on returning in the evening, the hubbub resumes. Prob-
ably because their feathers are less waterproof than those of most sea-
birds noddies shake themselves in the air after diving or periodically
during heavy rain. During extremely heavy rain I have seen them descend
and rest on the water.

8. Procelstema cerulea nebouxi Blue -grey Noddy.

(Bennett's Noddy; Blue -grey

Fairy Ternlet . )

Talaliki ,

This is the smallest of the tern family in the Colony, being only
10 to 11 inches in length. It is entirely light bluish -grey except for
paler silvery-grey or whitish underwings; the bill is black and the feet
black with yellowish webs.

Now a rare bird in the Gilbert and Ellice groups, a specimen was
collected by Whitmee from the Ellice Islands in I876, probably from
Funafuti. They have been observed on several islands of the Phoenix
group: McKean (Gr&ffe in 1863, listed in Finsch and Hartlaub, 1867);
Phoenix, Sydney, Birnie, Canton (Lister in 1889). They are common at
Fanning (Kirby in 192*0, and Christmas Island (King in 1953)- The sub-
species at Christmas Island is listed as P. c. cerulea by King and also
by Alexander.

The nesting period appears to be about July to January. One egg
is laid in a hollow among coral or on bare sand, the nest being lined
with a few sticks or coral fragments. The egg is pale cream with rich
brown spots and underlying pale greyish -brown spots.

-10-

9« Gygis alba . White Tern.

(Love Tern; Fairy Tern;
Angel Tern)

Matapula. Matawa.

(Matawanaba; Bairuti)

Baker (p. 179) states that the systematic position is in doubt. In
the eastern region it is probably G. a. Candida as listed by Bailey and others,
and by my measurements from live birds caught at Tarawa the subspecies in
the vest is probably G.a.pacifica , which is a slightly larger bird.

The beautiful little White Tern is fairly common on all islands ex-
cept Arorae, where surprisingly it is not present at all; pairs of birds
will usually be seen hovering near pandanus trees or playing on the branches.
They are easily distinguished by their pure white colour and arboreal
habits. The shafts of the primaries are dusky brown and of the tail feath-
ers almost black. Mayr describes the bill and feet as black; however all
specimens examined by me in this Colony have a bill which is deep navy blue
at the tip to a paler blue or royal blue at the base, while the legs and
feet are light blue or greyish-blue with white, yellowish or flesh-coloured
webs. The prominent dark eyes have a narrow black ring around them.

These birds are not easily frightened and show much curiosity by
fluttering close over one's head and uttering shrill nervous calls, espec-
ially when one approaches a nesting-site. No nest is built and only one
egg is laid; favourite places are the tops of old coconut stumps, forks
of pandanus and tree -heliotrope, or simply the rough bark of a horizontal
branch of these trees, and sometimes nothing more secure than the top
(slightly concave) surface of bare palm frond petioles; needless to say
these are precarious places for eggs, yet few are ever seen dislodged. At
Ocean Island eggs may be found in hollows and ledges on the large coral
blocks and pinnacles which remain after phosphate mining, or occur naturally
around the coast.

The eggs are pale bluish-green marked with brownish and purplish
blotches and scrawly lines; average size for five eggs measured was
38 x 30 mm. I have seen eggs every month of the year, but the main nest-
ing season is probably about May to January. The young cling to the branch
with their small sharp claws and are not easily dislodged. An adult may
often be observed arriving at the youngster with a bill full of tiny
silvery fish from the lagoon or ocean; it is remarkable how it manages to
catch the last few with its bill already half full, for up to a dozen have
been seen in a bill at one time. These are fed to the fledgling one at a
time directly from the bill. The rather dusty grey down of the chick com-
pares unfavourably with the brilliant snowy whiteness of the parents, but
is of considerable value as camouflage on the branch. During feeding
operations over the lagoon young flying immature s are often harassed by
the noddies who give chase until the tern drops a fish, which is then
smartly retrieved by the noddy before it reaches the water.

-11-

Plumage:

Mainly dark,
light crowns.

Dark upperparts,
white underparts.

Greyish upperparts,
white underparts.

Nearly all pale grey

All white

( Terns and Noddies

(A simple identification chart)

Size

Large

Crested Tern

Medium
Brown Noddy

Sooty Tern

Grey-backed T.

Small
Black Noddy

Brown -winged Tern

Black-naped Tern

Blue -grey Noddy
White Tern

-12-

II. SULIDAE (GANNETS OR BOOBIES)

Three members of this family occur in the Colony although only one
of them, the Brown Booby, is commonly known in the Gilbert and Ellice
Groups, the other two being but occasional visitors.

The birds are similar to the species in New Zealand, large and heavily
built, with stout thick necks and very stout powerful beaks, short legs with
large webs between all four toes . There is an area of naked skin on the
face and throat, the colour of which helps identify the species. The flight
is steady and deliberate, usually fairly close to the surface of the water.

The name booby (from the Spanish "bobo" - a fool) appears to have
arisen from their apparent stupidity in allowing people to approach them
so easily, and "because they permit themselves to be continually robbed of
food "by the frigate -"birds. A frigate will sometimes grab the booby "by the
tail in flight to make it disgorge some fish which the frigate then usually
manages to retrieve "before it hits the water.

10. Sula Leucogaster plotus . Brown Booby.

(Common Boohy)

Kanapu . Kibui .

(Kanopatua) (Tairo ?)

Single "birds or small groups are often seen flying around lagoons or
resting on "beacons or buoys. The adult is dark chocolate -brown on the upper-
parts and breast, white on the abdomen, underwing and under -tail coverts.
The bill is pale bluish or yellowish, with greenish-yellow on the skin of
the face. The legs, feet and webs are also greenish -yellow.

The Brown Booby eats a variety of herring-like fish, or fish that are
similar in habits to the herring. To get its food it dives from a con-
siderable height and often pursues its prey under the water; it has been
caught in fishermen's nets at a depth of as much as 90 feet.

It is a ground-nesting bird and builds a rough structure of twigs
and seaweed. Two eggs are usually laid but only one chick is raised. The
eggs are large and pale blue, covered with a white chalky layer which can
be scratched off. The young bird is fed on partly digested fish by thrust-
ing its bill and head into the throat of the parent. The nesting season
is about March to August. No breeding places are known in the Gilbert and
Ellice groups. Fanning, Christmas Island^ Canton and other Phoenix Islands
are known to have nesting colonies.

About thirty birds were roosting on the tops of coconut palms at
Numatong (Nonouti) in June but there was no evidence that they nest there.
One of my native companions climbed a palm at night and caught one of

-13-

these, which we measured. While roosting or breeding these birds, which
are usually silent, utter loud quacks and honking noises. Mr. G. B. Gal-
lagher, a British District Officer who died at Gardner Island in 19^1, had
a tame booby he called "Honk".

11. Sula dactylatra per sonata . Blue -Faced Booby.

(Masked Gannet)

Kena. Mouakena.

(Loka)

The Blue -faced Booby is seldom seen in the Gilbert and Ellice groups;
an occasional one is picked up by parties out bonito -fishing in the ocean;
Kennedy saw only one in five years at Vaitupu. They are fairly common on
Christmas Island, rare on Fanning and Washington, and present in small num-
bers on Canton, McKean, Gardner, Phoenix and Sydney of the Phoenix group.

The adult is a large white bird with contrasting dark brown primaries
and tail feathers. The bill has a horn-coloured tip, the base being orange-
yellow in males and pinkish in females; the feet are olive -drab in males
and lead-grey in females. There is a conspicuous patch of dark blue skin
on the face and throat. Although the colouring is similar to that of some
individuals of the Red-footed species it may be distinguished from the lat-
ter by the fact that the feet are never red; also a smaller area of the
wings is brown, and it never nests in trees.

The Blue -faced Booby nests on the ground, a shallow depression in the
sand, without other materials, forming the nest; two eggs are laid but only
one chick is raised. The nesting season lasts from about April to December
in different localities.

Its feeding habits are different from those of other boobies, for it
lives almost entirely on flying-fish, which it seizes at the surface of the
water or even in the air.

12. Sula sula (rubripes?) : Red-footed Booby.

Tapuku. Keta.

(Talanga?) (Makitaba)

The Red-footed Booby differs from the other two species in its nest-
ing and feeding habits. It lives mainly on squid which it catches in the
twilight of early morning and evening when squids and other creatures from
the ocean depths come to the surface.

It is one of the few tree -nesting boobies of the world, and builds a
rough nest of dry twigs; at Canton these are mainly on Scaevola bushes; at
Christmas Island on Tournefortia , and at Gardner on Pisonia . Large nesting
colonies have been reported at Fanning and Washington, and smaller colonies
on most of the Phoenix Islands. There is a possible nesting site at
Bakatorotoro (Abaiang) in the Gilberts-. A young nestling in white dcvn
shown to me at Tabuarorae (Onotoa) in August, 1955; was found on the broken

trunk of a Pisonia , and appeared to be of this species. No other nests
were found and it was probably an isolated case. These birds are also said
to roost but not nest on Pisonia trees on the islets of Tenon and Namauri
at Tabiteuea. There was no sign of them there in January, 1956.

Only one egg is laid and the young birds, like those of other boobies,
are covered with a coat of thick white down for several months. The nesting
season is from April to December in different localities; the eggs are
similar in appearance to those of the Brown Booby.

Measurements, colourings and classification are discussed at some
length by Murphy et al. in the booklet "Canton Island"; it appears that the
birds in this region are smaller than those elsewhere, possibly warranting
a new subspecific name to distinguish them from S. s. rubripes . Further
measurements are needed on birds from these islands other than Canton.

III. FREGATIDAE (FRIGATE-BIRDS).

These pirates of the Pacific skies are well-known throughout the
Colony; nearly every island has a few birds soaring over the land or sur-
rounding ocean during the day, and resting on the palm- tops or other tall
trees at night. VJhen one comes to find where they nest, however, it is a
different story, and many wild rumours are told. I was not able to find for
certain a single nesting-site in the Gilbert and Ellice groups; also no males
with the characteristic red inflated gular pouches were observed in that
region, although I was told that occasionally one such is seen. There are,
however, plenty of birds of various ages - all flying of course. Immature
males are common.

Frigates are the largest birds seen in the Colony, fully grown ones
having wing-spans of six to seven feet. Of the five species in the world,
two occur here, and their identification is difficult except in mature
adults. They inhabit windy situations for if grounded in a sheltered pos-
ition they are helpless and unable to rise into the air. During violent
westerly storms in the Ellice Islands an occasional frigate would reach us
on the beach on the sheltered lagoon side and was unable to do anything
more elegant than flap clumsily along the beach with its wingtips hitting
the sand. Also for this reason, nesting and roosting sites are in exposed
places, and tame birds are usually kept on elevated perches on the wind-
ward side of the atolls.

The long forked tails of these birds are sometimes not apparent when
in flight. If angered or disturbed the birds snap their tails in a scissor-
like fashion. The legs are very short and, although the feet are partly
webbed, they seldom rest on the water. Personally I have never seen one do
so but then I have not lived for any length of time among a large colony.
According to the report by Degener and Gillaspy one of them saw "a small
flock of frigates playfully land, float and rise again from the placid
waters of the lagoon". From my own experiences, the word'placid' used
here is puzzling - surely the incessant trade wind of Canton was necessary
for the birds to take off. The bill is long and slender with a sharp hook
at the tip; when annoyed the birds have a curious habit of rattling the

-15-

bill. On the throat there is a patch of skin which, in mature males, can
be inflated with air to form a large red balloon (gular pouch) in the
breeding season.

Their food consists of flying-fish, other small fish, jellyfish,
molluscs and other creatures picked up from the surface with a swift move-
ment of the bill when they are in flight; more often, however, they pursue
noddies, boobies and terns and force them to give up some of the food they
have swallowed, which is then usually caught by the frigate-bird before it
reaches the water. It is this habit which has earned them the nickname of
'man-o'-war hawk'. When other species are returning home in the evening
the frigates descend from their lofty soarings and pester the smaller birds
until a meal is consumed. In the Gilbert and Ellice groups the noddies are
the commonest victims, while at Canton and some other islands boobies are
the ones most attacked.

Their nests are clumsy structures of twigs, placed on low bushes or
trees, or sometimes on the ground in windy situations. Although a single
large egg is usual, Lister observed a few nests containing two on Phoenix
Island. Both parents share the incubation; if the nest is neglected other
frigates will rob the sticks, or egg, or kill the youngster. Immatures
can always be distinguished by their white or rusty-coloured heads, and it
is probably at least two years before adult plumage is attained. Females
are larger than males.

In some Pacific territories frigates have been used as message-car-
riers from one island to another, and there is one genuine story of a
strange frigate which was caught by an Arorae man who attached a no-te to its
wing and released it; the bird returned to its owner who was at Ocean Island,
about 450 miles away; the Arorae man later received a letter of thanks for
returning the bird. Since there appear to be no breeding colonies in the
Gilbert and Ellice groups the frigates seen there must all cover at least
several hundred miles in their flights from the Phoenix colonies.

The long primary feathers are used in the Gilbertese game of "Kabane",
in which a model 'bird 1 is catapulted vertically into the air while, from
twenty yards or so away, the 'hunter* attempts to bring down the bird with
a slingstone weighing 7 oz. attached to 25-30 fathoms of line. Now used
only as a game, the pastime was formerly a practice for the actual attempts
on the soaring birds. Also in the old days canoe crests of certain clans
were made of the primary feathers of frigates. In order to tame the birds
some natives use special diets, such as a particular species of small fish,
or boiled abdomens of hermit crabs. Others, when feeding the bird, add
some of their personal hair-oil to the food and rub some oil on its bill;
in this way they claim the bird can recognise its 01m master.

13- Fregata minor palmerstoni . Greater Frigate -Bird

(Pacific Frigate -Bird)

Katafa. Eitei.

(Manulasi)

Males are called Marenaiti or Bairakau; or, when the red gular pouch
is showing, Koko or Tarakura (Ellice: Talakula or Katokula); females are

-16.-

called Ubamara or Ubaimoa, and young birds Ubaitoi or Ubamei (Ellice:
Upaitoi) .

The adult male is dark "brown to black all over, with a bluish-grey
bill and black, brown or pink feet. It is the darkest bird of either
species and is thus easily identified. The female has a dark brown or
blackish head, neck, upperparts and abdomen, but the throat and breast are
white. Immatures have white or rusty coloured heads and patches of white
on the breast and abdomen; by the shape of these patches it is usually pos-
sible to tell whether the bird is male or female.

Canton and other Phoenix Islands, and the Line Islands, are known
breeding places. The nesting season is an extended one and lasts at least
from March to September. A large flock of an estimated 200 birds rested
on Pisonia trees at Tabuarorae (Onotoa) but there was no sign of nesting
there; these were observed coming in to roost in the evening twilight only,
and could have been of the species F- ariel .

lk. Fregata ariel ariel. Lesser Frigate -Bird.

Katafa. Eitei.

Not many islanders can distinguish this bird from its near relative
described above, and it is difficult to identify females and young birds,
which are similar in markings to those of F • minor . However the male is
easy to distinguish from below as it has a white ventral side patch under
each wing, the remainder being dark brown to black. The white on the breast
of the female extends back under each wing corresponding roughly to the side
patches of the male; this is about the only easy way of distinguishing it
from a distance from F. minor female. All are smaller birds than F. minor .

It is not so common as the Greater, but I have seen a few at Nonouti,
Funafuti and Nukufetau, and possibly the flock mentioned above at Onotoa.
Moul reported them from Onotoa. The only nesting place reported in the
Colony is the large one observed by Lister in 1889 on Phoenix Island.*
Thousands of nests on the ground with eggs but no young were observed in
June. Although they have been seen at Canton Buddie concluded that they
do not breed there.

IV. PHAETHONTIDAE ( TROPIC -BIRDS OR BO' SUN BIRDS)

This family is represented by only three species in the world, of
which two occur in this Colony. With their delicate plumage colouring
and unusual median tail -streamers, they are among the most beautiful of
sea-birds. The plumage is mainly white, with a roseate tinge ventrally,
and a few black markings; the black bar through the eye is a prominent
feature. They have long wings, thick straight bills, and short legs with
all four toes webbed. They are diving birds, feeding chiefly upon fish and
squids.

* Bird listed as F. minor but Lister's detailed description (1891) fits
F. ariel. -Ed.

-17-

A single "bird or a pair is often encountered at sea, when they will
circle around the ship for lengthy periods, occasionally uttering a shrill
rasping cry. The flight is somewhat undulating with the wings beating con-
stantly and steadily something after the manner of pigeons. I have not
seen them settle on the water although it is said they occasionally do so.

15. Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos . Red-tailed Tropic -bird.

Tavaketoto . Taake .

There now seem to be no definite nesting places for these birds in
the Gilbert and Ellice groups; there was once a considerable colony at Nui
on an islet called Bikentaake (z "island of the Tropic -bird" ), but the
"birds have not returned there for many years. The chief breeding places
are now in the Phoenix and Line Islands; known colonies occur on Gardner,
Hull/ Phoenix, McKean, Sydney, Canton and Christmas, and rarely on Fanning.
Nests are situated on the ground under saltbushes (Scaevola) or other small
shrubs, or between rocks or under overhanging rocks; a few dead leaves are
all that go to make the nest. Only one egg is laid, it being reddish -
brown in ground colour and beautifully marked with larger blotches and
streaks of purplish -black. Nesting lasts from May to November. Both young
and adult birds protest loudly if the nest is approached, and will often
strike with their stout bills.

The newly hatched young are thickly covered with white down; later
some black markings and bars appear on the back and wings; in adults these
have disappeared except for a small patch on the wings and flanks, so that
the plumage is chiefly white, often tinged with rosy pink or salmon shades.
There is a characteristic black streak curling through each eye, and the
shafts of the primary and tail feathers are black- There are lU white tail
feathers and the two median red streamers from which the bird is named.
The bill is usually an orange or vermilion shade, with a black streak through
the nostrils; the legs and bases of the toes are pale blue, and the rest
of the feet "black.

The red tail feathers are obtained merely by pulling them out; they
were much sought after in the last century by milliners, and in earlier
times were worn in some islands of Polynesia as a sign of chieftainship.
Of three red tail-streamers which I was given from Christmas Island the
longest measures 18.2 inches. For some of the village prophets in the
Gilberts the appearance of this "bird signified good luck, but for others
approaching death in the clan; it is thus apparent that the species has
never been common there .

16. Phaethon lepturus dorotheae . White -tailed Tropic -bird.

Tavake . Ngutu .

(Tavakepuka; Tavakelau) ( Koroangutungutu; Tarangotu)

This bird may easily be distinguished from the Red-tailed species
by its two long central tail-streamers, which are pure white and not as
narrow as the red ones. The next adjacent feathers are also fairly long-

-18-

and there are 8 shorter tail feathers, making 12 in all. There is more
black on the wings and flanks, with the rest of the plumage mainly white,
with or without the roseate tinge; the black eyestreaks are not so heavy.
The bill is yellowish, base greyish; the legs and bases of the toes are
yellowish or flesh-colour and the rest of the feet black.

These birds nest high up on Pisonia trees (called 'puka' in the
Ellice), or on the clumps of epiphytic ferns which often occur well up on
the trunks of coconut palms in the relatively high rainfall belt in the
Ellice . On Fanning and Washington the favourite nesting site is said to
be the top of a tall coconut stump. (According to Kirby the former owner
of Christmas Is., Father Rougier, accounted for its absence there by the
lack of crownless coconut trunks.) Other known nesting places are at
Vaitupu, Meang (Nui), Lafanga (Nukufetau), and Gardner Island.' Two eggs
are laid and the nesting season extends from about November to April. The
eggs and young are similar to those of the Red-tailed, and immatures of
the two species are difficult to distinguish until the long tail feathers
develop .

V. PROCELLARIIDAE (SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS)

The shearwaters earned the name from their habit of skimming low
over the waves, with one wingtip almost touching the water, in search of
food, which consists of fish, squids, crustaceans and other pelagic marine
creatures; they often follow the ship in search of scraps of food, either
thrown overboard or disturbed by the turbulence of the propellors. In the
region of the trade winds they glide effortlessly over the wave -crests with
hardly a wingbeat, and one is constantly amazed at their ability to stay
airborne. Equally amazing is their sudden appearance and disappearance
from the vicinity of the ship; they never approach very close, and their
identification at sea is notoriously difficult. They are all rather dull-
coloured birds of some scheme of blacks, browns, greys and whites. The
bills are strong and sharply hooked at the tip, those of the petrels being
relatively shorter and stouter than those of shearwaters. The feet are
webbed, and they sometimes settle on the water and swim about while feed-
ing or resting.

Only five members of the family are resident in the Colony, and none
of these is well-known in the Gilbert and Ellice groups, being but occasional
visitors encountered at sea. Their breeding places are found in the Phoenix
and Line Islands, especially at Canton and Christmas Island. They spend
nearly all their time at sea, and on land their legs are hardly strong
enough to support them, so that they often shuffle along on their breasts
with the help of their wings.

17- Puffinus pacificus chlororhynchus . Wedge -tailed Shearwater.

Kumala - Korobaro .

This is a large dark bird with upperparts dark chocolate -brown,
blackish on the primaries and tail. The tail is rather long and wedge •
shaped. The underparts undergo colour phases during the year so that

-19-

sometimes they are greyish -brown, and sometimes white . The Bill is pinkish
with a darker tip, and the feet are yellowish flesh colour or whitish.

Breeding places have been reported at Canton, McKean, and Christmas;
the nesting season lasts from May to August. The nests are in burrows
beneath soft soil or sand, often five feet or more in length, the nest
proper being a mere hollow at the end and sometimes lined with a few bits
of grass or feathers. One white egg forms the clutch. There is much fly-
ing about and activity over nesting places at night and both male and female
parents take turns at incubation. The young are fed on an oily food which
is regurgitated by the parent, and they become very fat and often larger
than the parents. The parents leave the young before they can fly properly,
and this store of fat keeps them alive until they are able to leave the
burrow and head off to sea. At night low wails and moans rend the air over
the breeding grounds as the sitting parents welcome their mates returning
from the ocean.

18. Puffinus nativitatis . Christmas Island Shearwater

? Tinebu.

The colouring is similar to the dark phase of P. pacificus , but the
bird is smaller and has a black bill and feet. The calls are said to be
more of a barking or "humphing" nature than the mournful wailing of the
Wedge -tailed. Breeding places are known at Christmas Island, Canton and
Phoenix Island. Westing occurs from May to December on the surface of the
ground, under bushes or in a crevice among rocks.

19- Puffinus lherminieri dichrous . Dusky Shearwater.

(Audubon's Shearwater)

Tapuku . Nna .

This is the smallest of the local shearwaters; it is dark sooty
brownish -black above, with white underparts. The under tail-coverts are
black and the sides of the breast grey. The bill is short and black, with
the feet flesh or yellowish.

They nest in burrows excavated in the sand, from about July to Sep-
tember. P. dichrous was described from McKean by Finsch and Hartlaub
(I867) from a specimen collected by Graffe. Alexander records them from
Christmas Island but King does not include them in his list from there ,
Bailey and others observed burrows on Canton in May and June.

20. Pterodroma alba . Phoenix Petrel.

Lulu. Tangiuoua.

(Ruru; kuma)

Comparable in size or a little smaller than Christmas I, shearwater
(1*1- inches according to Mayr).

-20-

Called the "kuma" at Nui, this bird is more commonly known as the
"tangiuoua", meaning "two cries", because of the two different kinds of
sounds which it makes: one is a high-pitched warbling cry and the other
a low bubbling or gurgling sound. There is a belief among some Gilbertese
that if the cry of this bird is heard above someone's house during the
night there will be a death in that family in the near future.

It is probable that the species was more well-known in the Gilbert
and Ellice groups many years ago than it is today, and there now appear to
be no nesting places in those groups, and not many of the younger people
have seen the bird. The nesting season seems to be a prolonged one; eggs
have been found at Christmas Island from June to February. Other breeding
colonies are at Canton, Phoenix Island, and possibly Gardner. One white
egg is laid, usually on the surface of the ground under clumps of veget-
ation, or occasionally in shallow burrows.

The adults are most active at night, and in the late afternoon and
evening. They are sooty black above with a dark band across the upper
breast, and dark underwings. The throat, lower breast and abdomen are white;
the bill is black, and the feet yellow with the ends of the webs black.

21. Nesofregetta albigularis . White -throated Storm-petrel.

? Bwebwe-ni-marawa.

Storm-petrels are the smallest of the seabirds, the above species
being only about 8 inches in length. It has long legs and webbed feet,
the legs (tarsi) and toes being remarkably flattened laterally, and the
legs so long that they estend beyond the tail in flight. Except during
the breeding season and when blown ashore by storms, all their time is
spent at sea, and on land they are unable to walk and have to use their
wings to help them shuffle along on their breasts. At sea they sometimes
seem to pat the surface with their feet to assist the skipping movements
in search of food, so that they seem to be walking on the
water. Occasionally they rest at sea. The food consists of shrimplike
creatures and other tiny animals from the surface of the ocean. They often
fly in groups across the waves, with a jerky, erratic flight which has led
some people to believe they are large butterflies - the Gilbertese name
means "butterflies of the ocean" .

The adult is sooty-black to greyish-black above with a noticeable
white patch across the rump, and a sooty band across the breast; the
throat, lower breast and abdomen are white, and the underwings smoky-
white; the tail is long and deeply forked, and the bill black.

In the breeding season they make burrows in the soft soil or under
bushes or among rocks; a single egg is laid, creamy-white in colour, with
small reddish-brown and faint purplish spots, more dense at the wider end.
Both male and female take turns at incubation Breeding colonies are
quiet during the day but very noisy at night when the birds from the sea
return to relieve their mates. The young bird is fed disgorged oily food
from the parent and, like the young of Shearwaters, grows bigger than the
parents, who desert it before it can fly.

-21-

Eggs have been found in July on Phoenix Island (Lister), and in
December on Christmas Island (King). No other breeding places in the Colony
have been reported. Two birds seen near the ship between Tarawa and Ocean
Island in January, 1956, were certainly of this species, the long legs and
white rump-patch being prominent. This suggests a very wide feeding -range
if the Phoenix Islands, nearly 1000 miles East, are the nearest nesting
places.

VI. APJJEIDAE (HERONS)

22. Demigretta sacra ; Reef Heron.

Matuku. Kaai.

The Reef Heron is the only wading bird which is permanently resident
in the Colony. Often mistakenly called a crane or stork, it is one of the
most conspicuous birds of the beaches and reefs; hunting small fish in the
shallows and tide pools, or flying with great slow beats of its broad wings
over the lagoon it is a graceful and attractive bird. There are three
colour phases: pure white, greyish-blue, and a third chiefly white b^ mot-
tled in varying degrees with the blue -grey feathers; local names for the
three types are:

White Heron: Matuku kena. Kaaimatang.

Blue Heron: Matuku uli. Kaaibuaraku.

Spotted Heron: Matuku pulepule. Kaaimakin.

In each kind the legs and feet are yellowish-green, or dull olive green,
and the bill is dull orange, often marked with blackish or purple on the
upper mandible. It was more difficult than it at first appeared to count
the relative numbers of the three phases along a stretch of ocean reef at
low tide, not only because of the movements of the birds, but also because
the Blue Herons were so much better camouflaged against the dead reef coral-
beads; my estimates were that the ratio of Blues to Whites was about 2:1,
with the mottled variety present to the extent of about one in every 10
birds. (These observations were for Tarawa, the ratios on other islands
not necessarily being the same.)

The long neck and legs are used to good advantage when wading in
the shallow waters on the reef or lagoon in search of food, which consists
chiefly of small fish and crustaceans of many varieties, often brightly-
coloured; quite often a bird will be seen chasing a lizard ( Emoia cyanurum )
along the land vegetation, or hunting worms, insects and small fish in the
babai pits; another habit is that of drinking the 'toddy' (flower sap from
the bound spathe of a coconut palm) from a hanging cup or coconut shell
high up on the palms . Usually a single bird or a pair is seen in one ter-
ritory, but at high tide there may be a gathering of ten or more in some
quiet spot among bushes along the shore, or on the low branches of a man-
grove thicket.

In the Colony the bird is a familiar sight on all islands of the
Gilbert and Ellice groups, but surprisingly is not seen in the Phoenix and

-22-

Line Islands. The nesting season lasts from November to June- A rough
platform of sticks and dry twigs or rootlets comprises the nest, which is
normally situated on high coconut or pandanus trees; one nest at Onotoa was,
however, only four feet from the ground, in an 'uri' tree ( Guettarda
speciosa). Two or three pale greenish-blue eggs form the clutch, and the
nestlings are very ugly and awkward for many weeks. Immatures which have
just left the nest have weak legs, rather untidy feathers, and are not able
to fly more than a few yards at a stretch; their natural ability as fisher-
men is, however, well developed. The feathers, particularly of the white
phase, are often used for decorative purposes in fans and other handicrafts.
A gutteral call is heard, mainly from nesting adults.

VII. COLUMBIDAE (PIGEONS AMD DOVES)

23. Ducula pacifica pacifica . Pacific Pigeon.

Lupe . Rube .

Although common throughout most of the Pacific, this large pigeon
is found in the Colony only in the Ellice group- (A few semi -tame birds
have been taken as pets to some islands in the Gilberts . ) In the Ellice
they are uncommon at Niutao and Funafuti, fairly plentiful at Nui and
Vaitupu, and present in small numbers on all the other islands. According
to IJhitmee this is a smaller bird than the Samoan race; total length is
about 15 inches.

The upper wings and back are grey with a greenish sheen and some
brownish tints; the head, neck and underparts are light pearly grey, with
pinkish tints on the underparts; the under tail-coverts are deep reddish-
brown, and the underwings grey. The bill is dark grey to black, and there
is a characteristic large soft operculum or cere at the base. The feet
are bright coral red.

Eerries of various trees are the favourite food, common ones eaten
being 'uri' ( Guettarda speciosa ), 'bero* ( Ficus ), and 'mao ' (Scaevola).
They are also known to eat ripe breadfruit from the tree, and, like the
herons, will be seen drinking the toddy from a hanging shell. The call is
a deep cooing, something like "pr-rrr-ooo-oo' ! .

Nests are usually built high on coconut palms at the bases of the
petioles; at Nanumanga in the Ellice they are said to nest on mangrove
shrubs. Two oval white eggs are laid, and the season lasts from about
June to September.

2k . Gallicolumba erythroptera: Ground Dove .

Lupe palangi. Bitin.

( Taobe )

While Ducula is a native in the Ellice, being referred to in many
old songs and legends, the ground doves are undoubtedly recent introductions
of the present century, probably mainly from Fiji. At Abemama they are

-23-

reported to harve been introduced from Nauru about 20 years ago, and have
multiplied considerably so that there is now a fair number in a wild state
A few pairs have also been taken from Abemama to some other Gilbert Islands
as pets, but in mofct of the Colony they are unknown. A pair taken to
Nonouti had four offspring, and in June two females had nests about ten feet
off the ground in an old deserted house; the nests were of grass and straw
and built inside old boxes; each contained two eggs, oval in shape and
creamy -white in colour. At Abemama they are said to nest in coconut crowns,
often high above the ground. They feed mainly on the ground; when disturbed
they fly up into the palms and their call, a soft "coo", may then be heard.

The colouring is typically darkish greys and white; the head, neck,
back and upper breast are grey with a purplish and greenish sheen or
irridescence; the secondary wing feathers are mainly dark grey and the
primaries and tail feathers mainly white; the abdomen is white, often spe-
ckled with grey, and the under tail-coverts white. The short bill is dark
grey with a small whitish operculum at the base; the legs and feet are coral
red, or purplish red. Some birds have less white than others, and hardly
any two are exactly alike.

25. Gallicolumba stairii . Friendly Ground Dove.

There are a few individuals in a semi -wild state at Abemama, prob-
ably of this species, and probably introduced from Fiji where it is common.
The habits are similar to those of G. erythroptera , and there is no distinc-
tion in vernacular names of the two species.

The colouring is mainly brown with a little white on the wings and
lower breast; the upperparts have a greenish sheen in some lights. The bill
is dark and the feet deep red or purplish red.

VIII. PHASIANIDAE (QUAILS AMD PHEASANTS)

26. Gallus gallus ; Jungle Fowl.

(Domestic Fowl)

Moa. Moa.

These semi -domesticated chickens are common on all islands where
there are native villages, although the people themselves seldom eat them
or their eggs; they are however freedly offerred to visitors and Europeans
during feasts, and for barter. Both the birds and the eggs are smaller
than common domestic fowl of European countries, being much inbred vnlth var-
ious imported strains. Exceptionally wild ones are sometimes encountered
in thick undergrowth of neglected coconut plantations, and these can fly
considerable distances. There is no one characteristic colouring, although
the roosters tend to be more uniform in colour than the hens They are fed
in the open on scraps of any food, particularly fish and grated coconut;
normally no enclosure is kept especially for them by native families, but
local European families invariably maintain a well-stocked 'chicken-run'.
It is also locally held that they do not lay well without regular supplies
of fish or crab. In most cases a whole dressed chicken is not too large

-2k-

for one person's meal. Once during an inspection tour of village schools
at Onotoa I was given whole chickens roasted in the native earth ovens
three times in the one day? When children brought in large numbers of
eggs from the nests of feral chickens in the 'bush' we tested them before
bartering, as a goodly proportion would always be addled. As with other
birds, the feathers are used for handicraft decorations.

IX. SYLVIIDAE (WARBLERS)

27- Conopoderas aequinoctialis Warbler.

? Bokikokiko .

This is the bird commonly referred to as the 'Christmas Island
canary'. It is probably the smallest bird in the Colony, the subspecies
at Christmas being only about 5 inches in length; this is Ca. aequin-
octialis . At Fanning there is a similarly coloured but definitely larger
race called C.a. pistor , while at Washington Island further northwest
still, there is a record of a similar bird which seems to be of a race
intermediate in size to these two.

The upper parts are greyish with whitish tips to the feathers;
the underparts are mostly whitish, tinged with pale grey on the sides and
with pale yellow on the breast; the legs and feet are grey, and the bill
blackish above, flesh colour below.

On Christmas they live chiefly among 'ren' bushes ( Tournef ortia ) ;
the food consists chiefly of flies and beetles caught on the branches and
leaves, on the ground and in the air. Nests are made in forks of the
'ren' bushes; the nest often consists of strands of the parasitic creeper
called 'te ntanini ' ( Cassytha ) coiled around the outside and lined with
leaves and grasses . It is said that two or three small eggs are laid
about June; the colouring is whitish with reddish-brown spots.

Although both Kirby and King list the Gilbertese name as 'kokikokiko'
I have not spoken to any Gilbertese native worker from Christmas Island
who has referred to it other than 'bokikokiko'.

X. PSITTACIDAE (PARROTS)

28 . Vini Kuhlii . Parakeet .

? Kura ■

This very pretty bird is common on Fanning and Washington, but has
not been reported from Christmas. It is about 7 inches long; the forehead

-25-

and crown are green; back of head and neck dark blue; back olive -green
to yellowish -green at the tail; underparts red, with purple on the
abdomen, and yellowish -green under the tail; wings greenish above, black-
ish below; bill and feet red.

It is said to lay two eggs in hollow places such as the tops of old
coconut stumps, and, according to one oral report, it will sometimes carry
its eggs away to another site if disturbed.

PART B: MIGRATORY BIRDS.

With the exception of the Long-tailed Cuckoo, all the migratory
birds which visit these islands normally nest in the northern hemi-
sphere; of these the Arctic waders of Alaska and Siberia easily form
the most important group. Most of these birds leave the Colony for
their northern breeding grounds about March or April and return south
again, after the short Arctic summer, in September and October. Allowing
for travelling time each way across some six thousand miles of ocean it
is obvious that their nesting season is a comparatively short one - about
June to August - and yet during this brief period they manage to prepare
nests, lay and hatch the eggs, and feed the young until they are strong
enough to accompany their parents, on the southern migration.

Most of the migrants seen here also occur in other island territories
of the north-central Pacific - Hawaii, the Marshalls and the Carolines -
and some birds, such as the Turnstone and Godwit, even reach as far south
as New Zealand every year, another three thousand miles on each leg of the
journey. How fast do they travel? No accurate figures are available but,
from records of migratory birds in Europe, the average speed for waders is
150 to 200 miles a day; here in the Pacific across certain routes in the
central ocean (what Baker calls the "Nearctic -Hawaiian Flyway" ) there are
few resting places, and probably greater average speeds are achieved. Do
they ever rest on the ocean 7 Bailey, in "Birds of Midway and Laysan", quotes
an observer who watched Golden Plovers alight on the water several times
(in 1891). IJhat percentage survives the migration? There are many unsolved

-as-

problems which can only be answered by banding and careful observations
over long periods. The birds are noticeably thin on arrival in the Colony,
but are correspondingly plump and often showing the brighter hues of breed-
ing plumage before leaving for north again.

I have on occasion observed what appeared to be the arrival or depar-
ture of some of these species. The Godwits were particularly thin and pale
and arrived on the lagoon mudflats in flocks of 30 to 50 birds, which im-
mediately sat down without any preliminary strutting about! (Normally waders
hardly ever sit, although they often rest on one leg.) On other occasions
during the 'locally -resident' phase, this apparent state of exhaustion was
never witnessed. A flock of about 200 Golden Plovers was seen to depart
north from one of the old wartime airfields at Tarawa on April Uth, 1955*
Many of these birds were in the darker breeding plumage and they had been
observed congregating here for several days. There was much restlessness
and chattering and wheeling -about for a few yards every day before they
finally disappeared into the northern sky. The flying height seemed to be
not much above the coconut trees, i.e. say, 100 to 200 feet.

An interesting point about the Godwits, which distinguishes their
movements from those of other Arctic waders, is that they certainly pass
through these islands in large numbers but only a few actually stay for the
summer here. There is thus a pronounced increase in numbers on both the
southern and northern journeys; their comparative scarcity between migrations
probably accounts for the fact that many Gilbertese to whom I described the
birds could not recollect having seen it at all.' I have, however, recorded
it on all islands visited in the Gilbert group. As with other species listed
below, a few non-breeding birds may be seen in the Colony during the northern
summer.

With the Plovers it was noticeable how a single bird or a pair seemed
to occupy the same territory each season; one sensed that they were the
same birds returned each year but, of course, there could be no proof of
this without marking in some way. However, Gilbertese who have caught
Turnstones for some of their games, and have identified their own birds
by tying a piece of coloured cloth to a wing, have had the same birds return
to them after an absence on migration, presumably to the Arctic and back.

I. CHARADRIIDAE (TURNSTONES AND PLOVERS)

29 • Arenaria interpres interpres . Turnstone .

(Sea Dotterel)

Kolili. Kitiba.

Seen in all islands of the Colony, the Turnstone is the commonest of
the Arctic visitors, and is so named because of its habit of busily over-
turning stones, seaweeds and tidal debris on the reef and beach in search
of small crabs, shrimps, sandhoppers, and other marine creatures. Occasion-
ally larger organisms such as the grey sand-crabs or ghost-crabs ( Ocypode
sp.) with carapaces up to two inches across were observed being caught and
eaten. Bailey states that on Midway they feed heavily on saltbush (Scaevola)

-27-

berries. In olden days the Gilbertese used to trap Turnstones for games
and bird-fighting; one of their traps consisted of an unhusked half coco-
nut with food inside the kernel and slip-nooses of fine coconut fibre
fixed vertically in the husk. Another had similar nooses set into a ring
of coconut midrib which was laid on the beach with bait inside. Quite
heavy stones can be lifted with their strong bills. The body is plump with
a short neck and short orange legs. They are very sociable birds, usually
being seen in groups of ten to 100 or more, moving about with quick short
runs in a very businesslike manner. When in flight broad white bands across
the upper wings and down the back are visible.

In summer plumage some of the upperparts turn reddish -brown, but the
winter coat is a scheme of greys and whites. They fly north in late April
and return about October. Their nests (in Arctic regions) are mere holes
between tufts of moss, sometimes lined with grass or reindeer hair. Four
eggs are laid in June and the young birds are ready to fly south by the end
of August. The breeding range is circumpolar.

30. Pluvialis dominica fulva . Pacific Golden Plover.

Tuli. Kun.

The Golden Plover is also a common bird; although a few may be seen
all the year round the greatest numbers are present from October to April.
There is a marked difference between summer and winter plumages; in October
and November when the birds arrive from the north they are noticeably thin
after the long journey, and pale in colour, the underparts being almost
white; by April, however, they are plump and show conspicuous black breasts
with a very pale stripe over the eye and down the sides of the neck and body.
The upper wings, back and tail are darkish brown mottled and edged with fawn
and golden yellow. The bill is dark grey, about 1 inch long; the legs are
long and slender, light bluish-grey in colour; there are only three toes.

Winter plumage: Ellice: tuli. Gilbertese: kun au meang.

Summer plumage: tuli alo malala. kun au maiaki.

Note : au meang : (literally: northern season) is the Gilbertese 'winter'
or stormy season, about October to March, which starts when Nei Auti
(the cluster of the Pleiades in the constellation Taurus) begins to
show above the northern horizon at 6 o'clock in the evening, and the
sun moves south of the celestial equator. Irregular storms and winds,
often from the west, more frequent rain, and strong ocean currents
flowing westerly characterize this season, which is the period when
Arctic waders are common.

au maiaki : (lit: southern season) is the Gilbertese 'summer' or
settled season, about April to September, which starts when Rimwimata
(the big red star An tares in the constellation of the Scorpion) begins
to show above the southern horizon at 6 o'clock in the evening, and
the sun moves north of the celestial equator. Steady easterly trade
winds, blue skies, little rain, and weaker ocean currents flowing
easterly are typical of this season, which is also the period when
Arctic vaders are scarce.

-28-

The Plover is a friendly little bird, not easily frightened, and one
can approach to within a few yards; on the wing it is seen to have a sur-
prisingly long wing-span, about 18-20 inches, and is a strong flyer. Some-
times when approached it displays the curious habit of stretching its head
up every now and then. Some Gilbertese have a game of asking the Plover
whether it's going to rain soon, or whether the ship is near - if it stretches
its head up in answer, that means 'yes ' . Several different calls may be
heard, common ones being like "whee-oo-wit", and "tu-li".

The food consists chiefly of small crustaceans and other tidbits found
on the tidal flats or near the water's edge on the beach; often, however,
birds will be found in open grassy areas or among the coconut clearings, where
they can be observed eating insects and sometimes small skinks. During the
heat of the day they are often more common among the coconut trees than on
the beaches . There were usually twenty or more scattered over the school
football field at Bikenibeu, Tarawa, always singly or in pairs. They are
not at all sociable until near the departure times for migration, and one
bird or a pair will defend the feeding territory, and savagely attack any
intruders, even to the extent of pulling out a few feathers. They occur on
all islands, including the Phoenix and Line Islands.

II. SCOLOPACIDAE (TATTLERS, CURLEWS, GODWITS)

31- Heteroscelus incanus incanus . Wandering Tattler.

Litai . Kiriri .

(Kapo; Kilikilitai;
Vivi tai ; Tulitainamo )

Variously named in different Ellice Islands, this bird has but one
Gilbertese name which is adapted from its common cry when alarmed, a rip-
pling 'ki-ree-ree ', sometimes repeated once or twice. It is a very
inconspicuous bird when sheltering among the rocks and dead coral along
the coasts at high tide, the' greys of its plumage harmonising exceedingly
well with its surroundings. However, as its English name "Tattler" sug-
gests, it is easily frightened and takes to flight uttering the character-
istic warning cry at a shrill pitch and thereby setting other birds on the
alert .

The bird is dark grey above and has soft bluish -grey wavy lines on a
pale grey or whitish background on the underparts; the bill is fairly long,
straight and dark grey, while the legs are dull yellow. There is a con-
spicuous light superciliary streak and a dark grey eye streak from the base
of the bill.

It generally feeds alone on the edge of the tide or on mud flats but
often wades out into shallow water in search of food; at high tide larger
groups rest together among the rocks or in the shade of mangrove bushes.
On one occasion a Tattler was observed perching on a high coconut frond, and
when frightened off it flew back to another coconut tree.

-29-

In the Ellice the cry of the Tattler in the evening is regarded by
the tautai (fishing-captains) as a good omen for the catching of bonito
( Euthynnus yaito ) the next day. Tattlers are well-known on all islands;
they leave about April for the northern breeding grounds, where they nest
on gravel bars in Alaska; the eggs are so well camouflaged that only two
nests have been found, one in 1923 and another in 1939.

32. Heteroscelus incanus brevipes . Grey-tailed Tattler.

(Asiatic Tattler)

No distinct vernacular names exist for this closely related race,
which appears to be but an occasional visitor to these islands. The two
are barely distinguishable in winter plumage in the field. The upper -
parts tend to be slightly lighter grey, and not so uniform in colour; also
the nasal groove is somewhat shorter, and the wingspan slightly smaller.
In breeding plumage the barring on the underparts is less pronounced and
does not cover the lower belly and under tail-coverts. They appear to
have similar habits to H.i. incanus , except that the call is different,
being a kind of "ki-leep", very shrilly and repeated several times, the
second note being higher in pitch. These were closely observed only at
Tarawa, but may occur elsewhere.

33- Numenius tahitiensis . Bristle -thighed Curlew.

Founga . Kewe .

(Kove)

Largest of the migratory waders, this handsome bird is easily
recognised not only by its size but also by the very long curved bill and
haunting cry from which its Gilbertese name is derived. (The listing of
the Whimbrel, N. phaeopus variegatus by Moul at Onotoa appears to be a
mis -identification; it is possible that an occasional Whimbrel will be
seen in the Colony, although not recorded by the present writer as no birds
were shot for specimens; they are somewhat similar to Curlews in the field;
the Curlew, however, may be distinguished by its characteristic cry, much
longer bill, bolder colouring with more rufous tinges, darker axillaries
and slightly larger size - I have confirmed all these features from cbser-
vations as close as 15 yards, with careful stalking as the birds are wary
and easily frightened. )

Occasional birds may be seen on all islands at any time of the year
but are most common from about late August to April or May when they leave
again for their breeding grounds in Western Alaska; the first nests were
not discovered till 19^8 - they are mere hollows in the tundra moss; four
eggs are usually laid, dull greenish -buff in ground colour with grey and
brown markings.

Adults have the upperparts speckled with light and dark browns; the
underparts are pale buff, almost white under the tail; the plumage has a
distinct rufous tinge, and in summer breeding dress the males have stronger
reddish-brown on the neck and breast. There is a pale line along the mid-
crown and another above each eye, and a dark brown line through each eye,

-30-

so that the head has a very striped appearance; the hill is pinkish at
the "base fading to grey towards the tip, curved strongly downwards and k-5
inches long; the legs are long, steely blue -grey in colour, and there is
a short hind toe.

Curlews hunt for food singly or in pairs on tidal mudflats or on the
reef at low tide, poking their long bills into crevices for crustaceans and
worms; they also have a curious habit of "breaking open shellfish and hermit
crabs by swinging them around (always clockwise viewed from behind) and
dashing them open on a rock. Solitary birds are occasionally seen inland
where they feed on insects and Scaevola berries, and also on the skinks
of which the Plovers are so fond. On some Pacific islands Curlews have
been observed stealing and eating freshly laid eggs of terns and other
seabirds. For drinking seawater the bill was placed sideways in a pool,
lifted out and held above the head for a few seconds, the operation being
repeated several times. On the other hand Godwits lower the head and bill
directly down horizontally into the water and lift up again with a slight
scooping action. No doubt these two actions are governed by the character-
istic shapes of the bills.

The haunting cry, something like "kiu-vee", carries far across the
mudflats, and is frequently heard during flight. At high tide the birds
are quiet and wary, and take shelter in small groups of six or so on a
dry rocky or gravelly spit, often under the cover of shrubs, and never in
the edge of the tide like some other species . They roost occasionally
on the lowest branches of mangroves.

3^-- Limosa lapponica baueri . Pacific Godwit.

(Eastern Ear -tailed Godwit)

Kaka . Kaka .

(Kotau)

Slightly smaller in size than the Curlew, the Godwit is more grey-
ish in plumage colour and may be easily distinguished by its long, almost
straight (slightly upcurved) bill, which is longer in males. When birds
arrive in the Colony about mid-October they are thin and pale -coloured in
their winter plumage; after a few months' plentiful supply of food, how-
ever, they are plump birds by March or April when the3>- leave again for the
north; some males have by this time a handsome breast of reddish -brown for
the breeding season.

The Godwit is seen chiefly on tidal mudflats, singly or in small
groups; at high tide larger flocks of up to 50 birds may be found gathered
on a dry spit or islet. Its food consists of tiny shellfish, other
crustaceans and marine worms; it is amusing to watch a Godwit poke its bill
down a hole in the mud and then run around its bill trying to locate the
direction of the prey in the hole. On one occasion a Godwit passed along
the ocean beach within five yards of where I was sitting; it was feeding
on the small ghost-crabs which it dug out of their burrows in the sand, with
the tide ebbing, and at intervals running down to the edge of the sea to wash
its bill and have a short drink- On another similar occasion a Godwit
was attended closely by two Turnstones which tripped in smartly under the

-31-

Godwit's head and stole the prey when opportunity off erred. By the end
of November and until about the end of February they are comparatively
uncommon, having presumably gone further south, and many local inhabitants
have not realized their presence at all, although thousand must pass
through the Colony on migration.

Godwits are fairly common ±n the Gilbert and Ellice groups but have
not been reported from the Phoenix or Line Islands, although several
observers have been in those places when Godwits would be seen if present.
The writer visited the inhabited islands (Canton, Sydney, Hull and Gardner)
of the Phoenix group in October, 1953, but did not record any Godwits. It
seems likely, however, that a few stragglers may touch on the Phoenix group,
but probably not the Line Islands which are 700 miles farther east.
Stickney's map showing the probable eastern limits of the wintering range
includes the Phoenix group without, however, any observational evidence.
Baker records that the Godwit reaches Australasia by migrating to a great
extent along the edge of the Asiatic continent, and that it probably
reaches eastern Micronesia as an uncommon visitor, since it is occasionally
recorded in the Hawaiian Islands. However, evidence assembled in 195^
by Stidolph indicates that the main migration route to and from New Zealand
is further to the east than has hitherto been supposed ("well to the
eastward of the Solomons"); my own observations in the Gilbert and Ellice
Islands would add support to this view.

Their nests have been found in Eastern Siberia and Alaska; they are
shallow depressions in the marshy ground, lined with reindeer moss and
grass. Four mottled eggs are laid about June, and by August or earlier
the young birds are ready to make the long journey south, some the nine
thousand miles to New Zealand.

35- Erolia ruficollis ruficollis,

Red-necked Stint.
(Eastern Little Stint)

Manu ote afa.

Nikunikun .
(Raurau; Buatua)

This is the smallest wader recorded by the writer in the Colony,
being only 6 inches or less in length and of correspondingly slight build.
Its neck is very short and, during the quick darting feeding movements
characteristic of the species, the head seems to be bobbing continuously
in search of prey. Groups of up to 22 were observed on reefs or mudflats
at low tide, often mingled with and partly concealed by larger groups of
Turnstones. The rufous shades of the breeding plumages are often more not-
iceable than the greys of the winter dress.

One or two birds which were otherwise indistinguishable from the
above at a distance but which had yellowish (instead of grey or black) legs
may have been the Least Sandpiper, Erolia minuta •

-32-

36. Erolia acuminata . Sharp-tailed Sandpiper.

(Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper)

As with many other species of uncommon visitors, there appear to
be no distinct vernacular names for this Sandpiper. Somewhat less com-
mon than the Stint, but not exactly rare (on Tarawa at least), this bird
is fairly easy to approach within five yards or so. The slender body,
rufous -brown crown, buff margins on brownish upperparts, greyish-fawn
breast, white belly, dull olive -green legs and slender black bill were
field characteristics easily distinguished through binoculars at this
range. In flight whitish underwings with greyish edges and white axil-
laries were visible; there is also a pale inconspicuous upper wing -bar.
On flying off the call was a quick "twee-twee-twee" or "chwee-chwee-chwee"

On several occasions groups of up to 3^ in number were watched
feeding on the soft red algal mud bordering brackish pools; another
frequented habitat was the dry sparsely-grassed area of the school sports
field at Bikenibeu, Tarawa, from which the birds appeared to be obtaining
small insects. The Golden Plovers which considered this area their pri-
vate territory often chased the Sandpipers off, even to the extent of
pecking out a few feathers.

The only other record in the Colony is of k specimens collected by
the "Whitney Expedition at Canton on March l^th, 1924.

37 • Crocethia alba . Sanderling .

The observed rarity of this attractive little wader in these islands
is in agreement with Stickney's earlier report (19^3) based on collections
from the Whitney Expedition. Only two individual birds were observed by
the present writer in three years. Both of these were at Tarawa, on Nov-
ember 8 and December 17- King observed one at Christmas Island on November
7; the Whitney Expedition included one male from Canton on March 12 and one
female from Sydney Island on March 21.

One of the birds I observed was feeding on the reef at low tide among
Turnstones while the other was alone on a sandy lagoon beach feeding at the
edge of the tide and running busily back and forth with each wave; no calls
were heard.

The Sanderling is slightly larger (about 8 inches) and more plump
than the Stint. In winter plumage its very pale greyish upperparts, white
face and white underparts, shortish black legs and black bill make it
fairly easy to identify; it is the palest overall of the waders seen. A
rather prominent broad pale median wing-stripe is visible in flight.

It appears that the Sanderling is an uncommon visitor over the
whole Colony from October to March. Since its wintering range is world-
wide it is puzzling that it is not seen in greater numbers.

-33-
III. CUCULIDAE (CUCKOOS)

38. Urodynamis taitensis . Long-tailed New Zealand Cuckoo.

Kaleva Kabanei.

(Suvii)

About the time (August -September) when the first Arctic visitors are
beginning to arrive the Cuckoo sets off on a long southern journey to
spend the late spring and summer in New Zealand where it breeds. The earli-
est date of its return which the writer noted at Tarawa was March 20th.
According to a Gilbertese legend this bird lays not on the ground or in
trees but flies so high into the sky and the egg takes so long to fall that
the youngster has hatched and is able to fly on reaching the ground again.
A similar belief was held about the nesting of some other migratory birds
such as the Curlew. The Marshallese have similar legends to account for
reproduction among i±ieir bird migrants.

Another saying of the Gilbertese, especially in the southern islands
of the drought belt, is that when the harsh cry of the cuckoo is heard in
the bush, rain is not far off. In the Phoenix the bird is more rare and
there is a belief that if the cuckoo's cry is heard above a house one of
the occupants will be striken with severe stomach pains .

The Cuckoo is a bird of the forest and only brief glimpses of it
are obtained during its straight and suift flight from one palm-top to
another, or perhaps for longer periods during feeding. One of its favour-
ite habitats is among the open flower -spikes of the coconut palm or near
the sap -collecting gourds' ("toddy-shells") around which there are plenty
of flies, ants, and other insects which form its main diet. The bird is
easily recognised by its hawk-like appearance, long tail, and by the
characteristic harsh repeated whistle. This cry is heard at night as
well as during the day but the exact location of the originator is often
difficult to pinpoint.

According to Baker the northern limit of its migratory range is in
the Carolines and Marshalls, being more common in the latter group. This
distribution seems to be in agreement with observations for this Colony,
where it is more common in the Ellice than in the Gilberts, rather uncom-
mon in the plantation islands of the Phoenix (Sydney, Hull, Gardner),
and appears to be unknown on the other (almost treeless) islands of the
Phoenix, including Canton. There have been no authentic reports from the
Line Islands; one Gilbertese native informant told me a few visited
Christmas and Fanning. Its greater numbers in the Ellice, which lie within
a heavier rain belt, may be partly due to the more dense bush there,
affording more cover and probably greater food supplies. Its main winter
range is eastern and central Polynesia, and Fiji.

IV ANATIDAE (DUCKS)

It appears that at least three species of migratory ducks from the
New Uorld visit islands as far south as the Ellice group quite regularly,

-3Jfc-

though not in large numbers at any one time. Unidentified ducks visiting
Fanning (Kirby, 1925 and King, 195*0 during the northern autumn were prob-
ably of one or more of these three species. Since the places they frequent
on the atolls are usually rather secluded it is difficult to assess their
numbers, distribution and seasons (if any). They are seen on freshwater
ponds , brackish inland pools and on the stagnant water or in the vicinity
of the sunken garden pits in which "babai" ( Cyrtosperma chamissonis ) is
cultivated. Apparently they have not been hunted for food by the native
peoples and, although they seem to be known on all islands, no distinction
is given in vernacular names to the two species which I have seen. Since
ducks are very adaptable in feeding and breeding habits there is the pos-
sibility of nesting occurring in the Colony. Sharpe and Whitmee (1878)
obtained 3 eggs of a duck in the Ellice but no other details were given.
Bailey quotes a man at Canton who reported seeing a nest with eggs of the
Mallard in June, 1953-

39 • Anas acuta tzitzihoa . Pintail .

Tristram reported a species of Pintail ( Dafila modesta ) from Sydney
Island in 1886. This appears to be the same species as the present
Anas acuta . King sighted one or two of these occasionally on ponds near
the airfield at Christmas Island (195^)> and a flock of 20 thought to be
Pintails flying in off the ocean from the northeast on November 18.

It has not been reported from the Gilbert and Ellice groups, and
was not sighted there by the present writer.

^0. Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos . Mallard.

Toloa . Tir iwene i .

A female of this species was brought in to me from a babai pit at
Tarawa on l6th October. It appeared to be rather weak and in poor cond-
ition but not injured in any way. Other single birds and pairs were seen
at various islands in both the Gilbert and Ellice groups from September
to December. From the few observations made and from the reports of
other writers this seems to be the main arrival period, and April to June
the departure time, although some may remain in this area the whole year
round.

^1 • Spatula clypeata . Shoveller .

Toloa . Tir iwene i .

These ducks also seem to be regular but not common visitors to all
islands. Two drakes in full colour were seen on 2nd April on freshwater
ponds near the old airstrip at Bonriki, Tarawa. They were not easily ap-
proached but, after taking to the air several times, always returned to the
same stretch of water. Bucks of this species have been observed at Canton
and other islands of the Phoenix group.

-35-

APPENDIX A: PROTECTED BIRDS:

The following "birds are protected under the Wild Birds Protection
Ordinance of 13th October, 1921.

(i) Birds protected the whole year ;

White Tern, Black-naped Tern, Crested Tern, Brown -winged Tern.

Brown Noddy, Black Noddy, Blue -grey Noddy.

Blue -faced Booby.

Greater Frigate -Bird.

Red-tailed Tropic -Bird, White -tailed Tropic -Bird.

Dusky Shearwater.

Reef Heron.

(ii) Birds protected part of the year:
Brown Booby:
Turnstone :

Pacific Golden Plover:
Bristle -thighed Curlew:
Pacific Godwit:

December to April-
September to February
September to February.
November to August.
September to February.

Cocos nucifera
Pandanus tectorius
Scaevola sericea

APPENDIX B: SOME COMMON TREES ASSOCIATED WITH

Gilbertese :
Coconut palm

Pandanus
Saltbush

Tournefortia argentea Umbrella-tree

Cordia subcordata

Pisonia grandis

Guettarda speciosa

Pemphis aciiula Ironwood

Calophyllum inophyllum Tamanu-tree

Artocarpus spp. Breadfruit

Rhizophora mucronata Mangrove
Morinda citrifolia
Ficus tinctoria

Malay Custard-

apple
Fig

Ni

Kaina

Mao

Ren

Kanawa

Buka

Uri

Ngea

Itai

Mai

Tongo

Non

Bero

BIRDS:
Ellice :

Niu

Fala

Ngasu

Tausunu

Kanava

Puka

Pua

Ngie

Fetau

Matalafi (?)

?

Nonu

Felo

-36-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

■^Alexander, W. B.

Birds of the Ocean. 2nd ed.
1-306, Putnam, New York, 195 1 *-.

Bailey, A. M.

Birds of Midway and Laysan Islands.

Mus. Pictorial 12: 1-130, Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., 1956.

*Baker, R. H.

The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution and distribution.
Univ. Kansas Pub. Mus. Nat. Hist. 3(1): 1-359, 1951.

*Blackman, T. H.

Birds of the central Pacific Ocean.

1-70, Tongg Publishing Co., Honolulu, 1<M.

Bogert, Cardine

The distribution and the migration of the Long-tailed cuckoo

(Urodynamis taitensis Sparrman) .
Am. Mus. Novit. 933: 1-12, 1937.

-//Buddie, G. A.

Notes on the birds of Canton Island.

Rec. Auckland Inst. Mus. 2: 125-132, 1938-

$Degener, 0. and Gillaspy, E.
Canton Island, South Pacific.
Atoll Res. Bull, kl: 1-51, 1955.

Finsch, 0. and Hartlaub, G.

Beitrag zur Fauna Centralpolynesiens. Ornithologie der
Viti-, Samoa-, und Tonga-Inseln.

Fisher, James

Bird recognition. Vol.1. Sea-birds and waders.
Penguin Books, London, 195^.

Great Britain Colonial Office.

Colonial Reports. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.
H.M. Stationary Office, London, 1950-51.

Kennedy, D. G.

Field notes on the culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands.
Mem. Polyn. Soc. 9: 326, 1931.

* marks the most useful general references for the area studied.
§ marks references including interesting personal observations.

-37-

#King, J. E.

Annotated list of birds observed on Christmas Island

October to December 1953-
Pac. Sci. 9: ^2-kQ, 1955.

$Cirby, Harold, Jr.

The birds of Fanning Island, central Pacific Ocean.
Condor 27: I85-I96, 1925-

#Lister, J. J.

Notes on birds of the Phoenix Islands.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 189I: 289-3OO, 1891.

*Mayr, Ernst

Birds of the Southwest Pacific.

i-xix, 1-316, Macmillan, New York, 19^5.

$toul, E. T.

Preliminary report on land animals at Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands,
Atoll Res. Bull. 28: 1-28, 195^.

$tfurphy, R. C, Bailey, A. M. and Niedrach, R. J.
Canton Island.
Mus. Pictorial 10: I-78, Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., 1954.

Oliver, W. R. B.

New Zealand birds. 2nd ed.

1-661, A.H. & A.W. Reed, Wellington, 1955-

Peters, J. L.

Check-list of birds of the world.

1-7, 9: Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1931-1960.

Robson, R. W.

Pacific Islands Year Book.

1-^79, Pacific Publications Pty. Ltd., Sydney, 1956.

Rougier, Emmanuel

lie Christmas, South Seas (Oceanie).
1-158, Brioude, 19l4.

Sabatier, Ernest

Sous l'e'quataur du Pac if i que.
1-292, Editions Dillen, Paris, 1939-

Gilbertese -French dictionary.

Sacred Heart Mission Press, Abaiang, Gilbert Is., 195^.

Sharpe, R. B. and Whitmee, S. J.

On a small collection of birds from the Ellice Islands.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1878: 271 -27^, 1878.

-38-

Stickney, E. H.

Northern shore "birds in the Pacific.
Am. Mus. Novit. 12^8: 1-9, 19U3.

Stidolph, R. H. D.

The migration route of the Godwit.
Notornis, N. Z. Ornith. Soc, 6(2): 195^.

Tristram, H. B-

On an apparently new species of duck (Dafila) from the central Pacific,
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1886: 79-80, 1886.

Turbott, E. G.

Some stray tropical and sub -tropical sea "birds in New Zealand.
Rec. Auckland Inst. Mus. k(3): 187-192, 1952.

A a PHIS' no. 75

April 15, 1961

ATOLL RESEARCH
BULLETIN

75. A Report on Typhoon Effects upon Jaluit Atoll
edited by David I. Blumenstock

Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 75

A report on typhoon effects upon Jaluit Atoll
edited by David I. Blumenstock

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council

Washington , D. C.
April 15, 196l

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office
of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of
which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll
Program of the Pacific Science Board.

It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda-
mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S.
Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago,
under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of
such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the
Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past fourteen years,

The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is
assisted by funds from Contract N7onr-2300(l2).

The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of
papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not
necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of
the editors of the Bulletin.

Editorial Staff

F. R. Fosberg, editor

M.-H. Sachet, assistant editor

Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be
addressed to the above

c/o Pacific Science Board

National Research Council

2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W.

Washington 25, D. C, U.S.A.

CONTENTS

Page

I. Introduction, by David I. Blumenstock 1

II. Wind, wave, and storm conditions at Jaluit, 5
January 1-Q, 1958 > "by David I. Blumenstock

III. General description of storm effects, 21
by Herold J. Wiens

IV. Island structures and their modification, 37
by Edwin D. McKee

V. Removal of fine sediments from islets, kl
by Edwin D. McKee

VI. Ground water, by Edwin D. McKee k-3

VII. Soils, by F. R. Fosberg k'J

VIII. Flora and vegetation, by F. R. Fosberg 51

IX. Typhoon effects on individual species of plants, 57
by F. R. Fosberg

X. Terrestrial fauna, by J. Linsley Gressitt 69

XI. Submarine effects of the typhoon, by A. H. Banner 75

XII. Marine resources, by A. H. Banner 79

XIII. Population and economy of Jaluit, by J. B. Mackenzie 8l

Glossary of terms 89

Bibliography 93

Appendix I. Table of plant species by islets, 95
by F. R. Fosberg

Appendix II. Gastropod molluscs collected by J. L. Gressitt, 105
by Yoshio Kondo

SMI i . P o , 71M1
INS I AKH * ' W01

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure

1. Jaluit Atoll Frontispiece

After page

2. Tide and waves - Jaluit Atoll - Jan. 7, 1958 6

3. Dominant directions of tree fall or snapping 8

k. Minimum speeds of first strong winds and dominant

directions of water movement across islets 8

5- Schematic streamline charts. Typhoon OPHELIA.

Jaluit area. Jan. 7, 1958 lh

6. Jabor Islet 20

7« Southern extension, Jabor Islet 20

8. Kinajon (Kinadyeng) Islet 20

9. Imroj (imrodj) Islet 20

10. Ribon Islet 20

11. Mejatto Islet 20

12. Pinlep (Pinglap) Islet 20

13- Majurirek (Elizabeth) Islet 20

1^. Lagoon profiles: Jabor and Mejatto Islets kO

15. Sections across Jaluit and Mejatto Islets kO

16. Section of southern Mejatto (19^- and 1958) kO

17« Scour channels and gravel deposits formed by Typhoon

OPHELIA on Jaluit and Mejatto Islets kO

18. Lagoon profiles, Majurirek and Pinlep Islets k2

Plates

I-X Photographs 105

I69°30' EAST

40

10

N

R
T
H

50'-

PINLEP

FIGURE I

JALUIT ATOLL

MILES

Al

MAJURIREI

FROM H.O. CHART 6007

- 10

50'

I

1 6 9' 30'

40

A report on typhoon effects upon Jaluit Atoll

I . INTRODUCTION
David I. Blumenstock

On January 7, 1958> a typhoon passed directly over Jaluit Atoll in
the Marshall Islands (5°51' N., l69°38' E.). First reports indicated that
the effects of the storm had been severe. The storm destroyed several
villages and killed fourteen Marshallese (two more died of exhaustion
shortly afterwards). The storm also radically altered the morphology of
several islets, destroyed many hundreds of trees, and scoured out soils
or buried them beneath a rubble mantle.

These reports of widespread damage and alterations were verified by
my visit to the Atoll two weeks after the storm. Though my visit lasted
but a few hours I was able to view all the islets from the air and to talk
with Mr. J. B. Mackenzie, then resident agriculturist on Jaluit for the
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. The storm effects had been
unusually severe. Thus a unique opportunity existed to study in the field
the kinds of effects produced upon an atoll that had been subjected to a
direct hit from an intense typhoon.

Accordingly, the Pacific Science Board of the National Academy of
Sciences --National Research Council, jointly with the Office of Naval
Research and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, sponsored the
formation of a party of seven scientists to conduct a brief, but intensive,
field study of Jaluit. The U. S. Navy provided air transportation to
Kwajalein and facilities there, as well as airlift to Jaluit. In addition
to myself, the field party included Dr. A. H. Banner, director of the
Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Hawaii; Dr. F. R. Fosberg,
Pacific Vegetation Project, U. S. Geological Survey; Dr. J. Linsley
Gressitt, chairman, Entomology Department, Bishop Museum; Dr. Edwin D.
McKee, geologist, U. S. Geological Survey; Dr. Herold J. Wiens, professor
of geography, Yale University; and Mr. J. B. Mackenzie, of the Trust
Territory. This group studied conditions on several islets of Jaluit
during the period April 2k to May 2, 1958 •

The members of the survey group are indebted not only to the
organizations listed above but to-fibe u. S. Naval Air Station, Kwajalein
for providing logistic support and transportation to and from Jaluit,
and to the staff of the District Administration, Marshall Islands District,
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, especially District Administrator
Maynard Neas and Milton Sideris, agriculturist, for local arrangements,
transportation, and help in the field. The staff of the Bernice P. Bishop
Museum, Honolulu, was especially helpful in organ! zing the expedition to
Jaluit and in preparing two parts of this report. Dr. Yoshio Kondo of the
Bishop Museum kindly identified the Mollusca collected by Dr. Gressitt;
and Mr. E. H. Bryan, Jr., of the Museum contributed most of the information
presented in Table I of the Introduction.

/Tjfote: --Jaluit was revisited by a second party, under the same sponsorship,
Oct. 20-29, I960, to study recovery from the typhoon damage, and a report
of this restudy is anticipated — EdT7

-2-

The findings of the field party are presented here, in the series of papers
that comprise the principal sections of this report. Each paper was pre-
pared by a single member of the field party, but views and information
were exchanged freely among the party members and each benefited through
discussions with the others.

As the editor of this entire report, I have taken the liberty of
standardizing the usage of place names and of terminology. I have also
inserted footnotes to refer the reader to relevant information in whatever
paper it appears and to point up differences in interpretation among
various members of the party. Footnotes for which I am responsible are
followed by my initials (D.I.B.). Otherwise, except for occasional minor
changes that it seemed to me would clarify the presentation, I have made
no changes in the texts of the individual authors.

The reader may wish to refer to two papers already published on the
Jaluit field study. One is my very general paper (Blumenstock 1958).
This paper presents very briefly a few of the principal findings of the
members of the field party. It is far less detailed than are the papers
presented here and it adds nothing to them. It may, however, serve as a
general introduction to these papers. The other is a paper by Edwin D.
McKee (1959)> which supplements and elaborates upon some of the results
that he presents here. Those especially interested in the geologic
effects of the storm should consult this paper.

Gross Geographic Features of Jaluit Atoll . Jaluit is a large atoll
in the southern Marshall Islands. Its gross form is evident from the map
of the atoll, Fig. 1. The features of chief interest are the large lagoon
(approximately 15 X 30 miles), the presence of islets on all sides of the
lagoon, the existence of three major passes (Southwest, Southeast, North-
east), and the presence of long, narrow islets on the eastern reef.
Compared with other atolls, Jaluit is classed as having a deep lagoon.
Most of the lagoon away from the reef is at least 15 fathoms deep and
much of it is 20 fathoms or more. The greatest sounded depth within the
lagoon is 29 fathoms.*- There are a few scattered patches forming barely
submerged or barely emergent reefs. Most of these are in the southern
half of the lagoon. The maximum elevation is less than 20 feet above
mean high tide and probably does not exceed 15 feet. Further, most of
the islets lie below 12 feet above mean high tide.*-* Many of these
general features are evident from Fig. 1.

* U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Chart 6007, 1st Ed. May, 19kh,
revised 8/17/59. Soundings are available chiefly in the Pass areas
and in the SE part of the Lagoon. It is likely that there are some
depths in excess of 29 fathoms in the unsounded areas.

** Elevation estimates are based on the U. S. Army Map Service series
(1:25,000), which do not, however, carry contours below 20 feet; and
upon my general impression from having been on several of the islets
and having viewed all of them from the air. Possibly the highest
elevations above mean high tide are 12-15 feet on the northern side
of Majurirek and the north to northwest side of Pinlep.

-3-

Jaluit is a rainy atoll, and had dense lush vegetation and well
developed soils in many areas. The annual rainfall averages between
170 and 190 inches. The rainiest period is from May through November,
when rainfall of 18 or more inches in a single month is common. During
this period showers are frequent and the winds are often light and
variable. The drier season extends from December through April. In the
center of this period, from January through March, the tradewinds are
especially strong and constant. Concurrently, monthly rainfall totals
are often below 8 inches.

In a standard shelter at a 5 to 5"2 foot height, the temperature
range at Jaluit is estimated as being from an absolute minimum of 68
or 69°P to an absolute maximum of 93 or 9^°F. More commonly, the daily
range is from the middle seventies to the high eighties. Temperatures
tend to run 3 to 5° less during the dry tradewind season than during
the rainy season. In the tradewind season maximum daily temperatures
may be as low as 82 or ^op and minimum temperatures, typically during
nocturnal showers, may be as low as 70°F or even slightly lower.

Though moderate tropical storms pass near Jaluit every few years,
the close passage of full-fledged typhoons is a rare event. Following
the technical definition of a typhoon (or hurricane), which requires
that it contain winds with sustained speeds of over 73 m.p.h. (63.^ knots),
the passage of a typhoon center within a distance of 50 miles of any part
of Jaluit Atoll probably does not occur more often than once in 20 years
on the average . Further, these are typically small intense storms, with
winds of typhoon speed extending outward no more than 25 or 30 miles from
the center. The passage of a typhoon directly over Jaluit or within a
very few miles of it is correspondingly an even more rare event. Such a
very close passage probably occurs not more often than an average of once
in 50 years.

The typhoon that hit Jaluit on January 7, 1958, was named OPHELIA.
Prior thereto, in November 1957> two storms passed sufficiently close to
Jaluit to produce some minor damage, chiefly on Jabor. These were the
storms that later grew to typhoon intensity and became typhoons LOLA and
MAMIE (Fleet Weather Central 1957). Thus the 1957-58 season appears to
have been one that favored a high frequency of intense storms in the
Marshall Islands, a fact associated with a major dislocation in the usual
atmospheric circulation system throughout the entire tropical North
Pacific (Blumenstock 1957). Prior to OPHELIA the last storm of typhoon
intensity to pass very close to Jaluit was that of 1905 (Jeschke 1905-06).
The older Marshallese on Jaluit recall this storm and state that its
effects were much like those of OPHELIA

General History, Typhoon OPHELIA . OPHELIA was first detected as a
disturbance near Palmyra (5° 23' N., 162° 5' W.), where it produced winds
of 30 m.p.h. and heavy rainfall. It approached Jaluit from a general
easterly direction, evidently moved directly across Jaluit, and then
moved WNW through the Marshall and Caroline Islands and into the Philippine
Sea, where it died out (Fleet Weather Central 1958). Among the other
islands seriously affected by OPHELIA were Ponape, Truk, and the Hall
Islands, all in the Carolines.

-4-

The typhoon intensity of OPHELIA was not known until it struck Jaluit
and the word was relayed to Majuro "by radio. Thus the storm appears to
have deepened (intensified) rapidly between Palmyra and Jaluit.

Orthography . The names of the islets of Jaluit are spelled in many
different ways. The spellings used in this report are shown in Table I,
together with other spellings commonly used. Attention is called especial-
ly to the point that Jabor is used for the northern end of Jaluit Islet,
as shown in Figure 1.

Organization of this report . The organization of this report is given
in the Table of Contents. Attention is especially invited to the two
Appendices, and to the Glossary, which defines certain terms used here
about which there may be some difference of opinion. No concluding summary
section is presented because it is felt that such can best be prepared
after a re -survey of the Atoll to determine what the long-lasting effects
of the typhoon have been.

TABLE I.

Place name spellings for some of the islets of Jaluit

Spellings
used here- *-

Ae

Enejet

Imroj

Jabor^

Jaluit^

Kinajon

Lijeron3

Majurirek

Mejae

Mejatto

Pinlep

Ribon

Spellings on

Transliterated

H. 0. charts

Japanese spellings

Ai

Ai

Enybor

Eniboru

Imrodj

Imuro j i

Jabor

Jaboru

Jaluit

Yaruto

Kinadyeng

Kinazen

Lijeron

Rijieron

Elizabeth

Mejiruriku

Medyai

Mejai

Medyado

Mejaddo

Pinglap

Pingurupu

Ribon

"TUxcept where otherwise noted these follow the Marshallese
and are based on the manuscript list compiled by E. H. Bryan, Jr,

^Jsed instead of Bryan's spellings because frequent,
current usage makes it desirable to deviate here.

^Tliis is Naen, according to Bryan's list; but according to
J. B. Mackenzie and to local Marshallese informants, Naen is
the adjacent islet and Lijeron is the correct name.

-5-

II. WIND, TT AVE, AND STORM CONDITIONS AT JALUIT
JANUARY 7-8, 1958
David I. Blumenstock

The central physical events that led to the remarkable geomorphic,
vegetative, and other changes on the islets and submerged reefs of Jaluit
Atoll were the extreme wind and wave conditions that accompanied the storm.
For this reason as well as from the viewpoint of intrinsic interest it is
pertinent to reconstruct as accurately as possible the sequence of wind and
wave conditions on January 7-8. In so doing, it is necessary to evolve a
reconstruction that yields a coherent physical description of the storm
itself: of its shape, size, intensity, and movement.

There are four major lines of evidence as to wind and wave conditions
during the storm. These are the general (basic) tide conditions as given
by standard tide tables, the accounts of natives, the vegetative evidence
(especially direction of tree fall), and the geomorphic evidence. There
are other, lesser, lines of evidence, as, for example, the destruction of
a steel tower and the movement of a large storage tank. Each of these
lines of evidence will be considered in turn, with a factual presentation
of the observations together with my own comments as to their significance
and accuracy. Thereafter I will present a summary of what I consider to be
the significant, concordant evidence, at the same time making clear why
certain evidence has been discarded or adjusted. Finally, I will estimate
what the succession of wave and wind events were as related to the nature
and movement of the storm that was the generating agent.

Basic tide conditions

Figure 2 shows the mean tidal height at Jaluit Atoll from 0500
to 2*1-00, l80th meridian time, January 7, 1958,* The significant feature
of this curve is the range of 6 feet, which is a very large range compared
with the average, for this was a spring tide day. The upper portion of
Fig. 2, which refers to wave conditions upon different islets, is dis-
cussed below.

* Time and height of the two pairs of high and low tide points are
taken from U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 1957- Intermediate (hourly)
values have been obtained through applying the short form for interpola-
tion given in this reference.

-6-

Accounts of natives

Accounts of the sequence of events during the storm were given to me
by the Head Chief of Majurirek Village, by Mr. Katje, a Marshallese employee
of the Trust Territory, and by Mr. Morris, the Head Chief of Imroj Village
and the Head of the Chiefs' Council for the Atoll of Jaluit. The account
by the chief of Majurirek Village, was given through an interpreter. In
contrast, Katje and Morris gave their accounts in quite good English,
though two or three times Morris switched to Marshallese, which was then
translated by Katje. In each instance the informant was asked to describe
in his own words what took place and in what order, especially with
reference to wind, wave, rain, and falling trees. Only after he had
completed his narrative was the speaker questioned regarding specific
points. The accounts of each of these three are given below, with a
distinction being made between information that was volunteered and that
which was given in answer to questions, since there might be a tendency
for any one of them to answer a question in such a manner as to attempt to
please the person asking it. All the accounts have to do with conditions
on January 7"th or in the early morning on the 8th. The accounts are from
my abbreviated notes and are not intended to give the exact words or an
exact translation of the words of the speaker. All times are local
(approximately l80th meridian).

Account of Head Chief of Majurirek Islet,
with reference to conditions on Majurirek

Information volunteered : Around 8 in the morning the wind was from
the north, not too strong. About 10 o'clock the wind started to blow
"full", still from the north. Around 2 o'clock in the afternoon the wind
went to northwest and at the same time there was a little wave that came
in from the east and onto the islet (on the lagoon side). By late after-
noon, around k o'clock, there were big waves from the east, and these went
up the shore quite a way. Then for about four hours the wind was very full
and it went from northwest to west to southwest and then to south. After
this (about 10 p.m.) the wind died down.

Questio n: How far up the shore did the big wave come (from the lagoon
in early afternoon)? Answer : About 10 to 15 feet up the shore.
Question : When did the trees start falling down? Answer: From the time
when the wind was full from the north through the time it was very full
from the northwest and west. Question : Were there waves from the ocean?
Answer: Yes, but only small ones. Question : Did it rain? Answer : Yes,
there were heavy rains from around the middle afternoon until past mid-
night.

Account by Mr. Katje
with reference to conditions on North end of Jaluit Islet (jabor)

Information volunteered : At about 9 o'clock the first big wave came
from the east, and it went over the southern part of Jabor (the narrow
part). The wind then was from the north. The second big wave came across
from the east around noon. Still the wind was from the north. About 3 p.m.

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TABLE II.

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE BY INFORMANTS

Approximate
Time *

0700

NAME

F

ISLET

Majurirek

N. Jaluit

Imroj

0800

r

0900

r k>

r

1000

+

1100

+

1200

+

ru

1300

+

1400

r

+

1500

+

r\j ru

1600

f

r^j +

<

1700

+

©

1800

+

1900

>^

V

OJ

2000

V

2100

2200

J

2300

2400

January 8

Morning

*180th meridian time

r A /^

/ Light to moderate wind. ' Very strong or full wind. Strongest win^
NOTE: Arrows. fly with the wind. North considered to be at top of page.
E.g. J =S. wind

' Small waves. i\J Large waves. < Arrows above wave symbols show

direction from which the wave came.

Light rain. # * # Heavy rain. -(-Trees falling or being snapped.

Calm or very light wind.

-7-

big waves came both from the east (ocean) and the west (lagoon) and they
came together and made a big jumble of water. The wind was still from
the north. Then after a while it was all finished.

Question : When were the winds the strongest? Answer ; From noon on.
Question ; What happened to the wind direction from middle afternoon on,
did it change? A nswer : In later afternoon it went from north to north-
west, then to west. At nighttime it was southwest. By the next morning
it was east. Question : Did the wind stop blowing at all? Answer : Yes,
it stopped for a little while just before nighttime.

Account by Mr. Morris
with reference to conditions on Imroj

Information volunteered : Rain began around 7 in the morning. Wind
began around 9 in the morning. Pull wind started blowing around noon.
There were some waves from the east around 3 p.m. The first really big
wave came around 7 p.m. The second big one about 20 minu tes later.
There were six big waves all together, all from the ocean. After the
waves there was one more very strong wind at about 8 p.m. About 9 o'clock
the wind died down.

Question : The big waves — the six big waves — from the ocean, about
how much time was there between them? Answer : Always about 20 minutes
between them- Question : The wind that began in the morning and then
became full about noon, what direction was it from? Answer : North.
Question : The last big strong wind, around 8 to 9 o'clock at night,
what direction was it from? Answer : North. Question : What happened
to the wind after it died down? Answer: There was no wind from about
9 to 9:30, then the wind started from the south and it blew from the south
until very late. Question : About how late would you say? Answer : At
least 11 o'clock; but by morning the wind was from the east. Question :
Were there any waves from the lagoon? Answer : Just small waves.
Question : When, would you say? Answer : After nighttime, after the big
ocean waves. Question : Was there any rain during the storm? Answer :
Yes, light rain all the time. Question : Could this have been ocean spray?
Answer : Yes, or ocean spray. Question : Did anyone think a storm was
coming before the waves came? Answer : Yes, the old men thought so.
Question : I know you were on Imroj, not Mejatto, but could you tell
whether water came across Mejatto? Answer : The water did not come
across Mejatto.

In Table II, I have summarized the information provided by the three
accounts given above. I have summarized it as given, even though I am
aware that it is not necessarily to be taken literally. For example, the
time references can scarcely be accurate even within a half hour, for
these men were busy saving themselves and their families and even those
that wore watches certainly did not bother to look at them at least while
the storm was at its worst. Note, also, for example, the inconsistency in
Morris' account: He says there were six waves at 20-minute intervals, all
between 7 and 8 p.m. I will refer to Table II later on and will then
attempt to justify correcting it to accord with other evidence.

-8-

Vegetational evidence

Some evidence as to the direction of first very strong winds is given
by the direction cf dominant treefall and breakage on the different islets.
This information is summarized in schematic map form in Fig. 3» la "this
figure two directions are shown where treefall and breakage was commonly
observed throughout a direction range of 3O-60 . With the exception of
two of the islets for which arrows are shown, there was good concordance
of dominant direction of fall (within the range of the wind arrows). The
exceptions were northernmost Jaluit (jabor) where Fosberg observed tree-
fall from all directions, even though falls from the east to northeast
seemed most common (wind E to HE). Similarly, on Kinajon Fosberg reported
a wide variety of directions, though again with some dominance (north to
northwest winds). Fosberg and v/iens are agreed on the overwhelming
dominance of north to south fall (north wind) on Lijeron and they and I
are all agreed on the dominance of west to east fall (west wind) in
central Jaluit Islet (beginning about 300 yards south of the southernmost
Japanese block house at the southern edge of Jabor). As for the dominant
direction on north central Mejatto (about 1000 yards from the northern
tip), I made a methodical count of trees snapped off and, judging from
the scars, found that 45 had snapped towards the southwest (NE wind),
2 toward the south (N wind), 2 toward the east (W wind), and one toward
the northwest (SE wind).

From the uprooting and snapping off of trees, what conclusions can be
reached regarding windspeeds? From discussions with Fosberg and judging
from my own observations on Guam after that island was sideswiped by
typhoon LOLA*, I believe the following estimates are warranted:

(1) On Mejatto, where palms and many other kinds of trees were
snapped off, sustained windspeeds certainly exceeded 125 knots (from NE
among other possible directions);

* LOLA passed south of Guam in November, 1957- Two or three weeks later
I stopped on Guam and spent seven days in the field studying what the effects
of the storm had been upon the land and upon the vegetation. Recorded
windspeeds on Guam reached a maximum of 83 knots sustained speed and 103
knots for the peak gust, both on top of Mt. Alutom. Speeds in less
exposed locations, as along the southern and eastern coasts, were around
50 to 7° knots sustained (over 60 at the Naval Air Station). It is
reasonable to suppose that very locally, because of funneling effects and
the like, speeds elsewhere reached 70 to 80 knots, sustained. VJhere
breadfruit or pandanus stood in exposed locations, they were often down
or snapped off a few feet below the crown- Yet I saw no palms either
snapped off or down except in the coastal region from Inarajan to Merizo
--a region that had been inundated. Casuarina , like the palms, also
stood well against the wind. Thus on the open beaches on the east coast
of Guam, a few miles south of Ylig Bay, there were open stands of
Casuarina , that had been well exposed to the winds, and among these many
hundred trees I found only one that was down, and it stood east (ocean-
ward) of the strand line where washing out of roots must have occurred
just as it was observed to have occurred among neighboring trees that
were still standing.

Figure 3
Dominant Directions of Tree Fall or Snapping

Directions are shown by wind arrows with reference to winds that would produce
observed fall (assuming trees fall toward downwind direction) . Wind arrows
fly with the wind. Directions shown to eight points only. Where two
arrows are shown dominant fall was from two directions as shown.

Lijeron

Pinglap ^£

Majurirek

Mejatto

V/— Imroj

Kinnajon

N. Jaluit (Jabor)
z N. central Jaluit

10

MILES

N

i

Figure 4

Minimum Speeds of First Strong Winds and Dominant Directions

Of Water Movement Across
Islets

(Deduced from vegetative and geomorphic evidence. Wind directions are to
8 points; windspeeds, in knots. Wind arrows fly with wind. Wavy arrows
show direction of dominant water movement, with longer arrows representing
major inundations and shorter arrows representing lesser inundations.)

80-100

10 N

MILES 4 s

-9-

(2) On Imroj and Kinajon the maximum windspeeds were perhaps slight-
ly less (certainly, however, in excess of 100 knots). Here, as on the
islets of Majurirek, Pinlep, and Lijeron, allowance must he made for the
extent of tree stands — the massing of trees on relatively wide islets.
The same massing occurred at the northern and southern tips of Mejatto,
where relatively few trees were snapped off or "blown down compared to the
90$ or more that were snapped or down throughout the central 2-2§ mile6
of Mejatto.

(3) The vegetative evidence shows that windspeeds on Jaluit Islet
were also in excess of 100 knots (snapping from west to east south of
Jabor, direction confused hut generally east to west in northern Jabor).
However, as Fosherg noted, beyond South Point there were far fewer trees
snapped or uprooted than to the north of South Point.

(k) The evidence on Majurirek and Pinlep shows maximum sustained
winds (from between north and west at time of fall or snapping) of at
least 80 knots and probably at least 100.

(5) On Lijeron the maximum sustained winds were from the north at
speeds comparable to those on Majurirek and Pinlep.

In general, no estimate of windspeed is warranted where trees were
blown over during inundation. The above estimates are made on the basis
of trees observed to be blown down where no inundation occurred or on the
basis of trees snapped off.

Vegetational evidence also provides clues as to the dominant direction
of water movement across various islets. On the lagoon side of Mejatto at
several different points, some palms and other trees had been washed west-
ward (or southwestward) and at the time of the survey were standing in
water several fathoms deep. Clearly marked strand lines indicated inunda-
tion from east to west (or northeast to southwest) across the ocean beaches
and almost to the center of Imro j . These same inundation directions held
on Majurirek and Pinlep, but with the strand lines at lower levels, 4-7
feet above mean high tide (the spring tide would account for about 1 foot
of this amount). On the other hand, strand lines indicated much lesser
inundations from the ocean eastward (southeastward) onto Majurirek and
Pinlep .

Finally, there was another curious line of evidence that is not
conclusive but is suggestive. On central Mejatto, as Fosberg pointed out,
the palm roots exposed by the erosion accompanying the inundation were,
with two exceptions, combed in an. east to west direction. This would
appear to indicate that the water drained from east to west off this part
of the islet. In contrast, in the gentle topographic trough just back
(west) of the steep ocean beach on Mejatto, there were two roots (the only
ones visible) that were combed south -to -north. This same trough contained
large quantities of vegetable strand material, yet there was no source for
such material on the beach to eastward. Two roots and some strand debris
are not much evidence on which to hang an hypothesis, but I am inclined
to guess that while the main body of water drained from east to west, some
remained in the topographic trough and that thereafter this water was
blown northward by a strong south wind, thus accounting for the perverse

-10-

combing of the roots. As for the strand material, it may well have been
brought in from the ocean during periods of strong tradewinds after the
storm, having been derived initially during the storm not from Mejatto at
all but from islets to the southeast --to the east and south of North-
east Pass.

My interpretations of the vegetational evidence, discussed above, are
summarized in schematic map form in Fig. h.

Geomorphic evidence

On the several islets that were visited by the members of the field
party, there is ample and usually quite consistent geomorphic evidence as
to the direction of movement of water onto or across the land. To what
extent the water came upon or across the land simply as huge, wind-driven
waves and to what extent as a true surge — a term that requires a local
rise in sea level due to the friction of wind upon the water — is another
matter, and one on which the geomorphic evidence is not conclusive.
Almost certainly both these factors were involved, at least on such
eastern islets as Jaluit and Mejatto, which were under water to depths of
at least one or two feet, as the following discussion makes clear.

The geomorphic evidence consists of depositional and erosional forms
of the following kinds:

Depositional

Subaerial at least at low tide

1. Bars and ridges, emergent at least at low tide

a. Upon reef flat, but separated from the land at
mid-tide.

b. Upon the reef flat, but tied to the land at
mid-tide .

c. New or augmented beach ridges upon the islets
above high tide.

2. Patches or sheets of rubble

a. Upon the reef flat, below water at mid- to
high tide.

b. Upon islets and emergent at high tide.

3« Irregular debris mounds upon islets, above high tide.
k. Pronounced strand lines upon islets, above high tide.

-11-

Submarine

1. Sediments, chiefly fine, deposited on floor of lagoon
to west of several of the eastern islets.

2. Submerged portions of bar and ridge forms in lagoon
to west of northern Jaluit Islet.

Erosional

Subaerial at least at low tide

1. Scour channels cut across islets (or for distances of
many tens of yards across much of islet)

2. Scour pits and plunge holes, upon islets, roughly round
to oval and without such channel features as marked
elongation with undercutting for distances of at least
tens of yards along sides to form distinct lateral
boundaries

3« Breaks in older boulder ridges or in ridged beach rock

k. Beach scarp, cut in unconsolidated materials

5. Evidence of removal of fines in irregularly-shaped
areas upon islets

Submarine

No e/idence was seen directly of marked erosion below
low water height, although at least one scour channel on
Mejatto extended as a submarine feature for a distance of a
few tens of yards into the lagoon. Presumably there was
erosion of the reef front on the ocean side of the eastern
islets, with rock fragments being torn from the reef or
plucked from crevices on the reef front where they may have
lodged after breaking off some time prior to the storm.
However, the reef front on the ocean side was not examined.

These geomorphic features are described in future chapters. Here all
that will be done is to mention these features, islet by islet, as they
constitute evidence of water movement.

MEJATTO: Evidence ; Gravel sheets thickest and most extensive on

eastern (ocean) side of islet, thinning out and usually disappear-
ing on western (lagoon) side; pot holes and scour pits excavated
east to west as evidenced, for example, by their lying to the
west of such obstructions as massive tree roots; fine sediments
deposited chiefly along western side of islet and onto adjacent
reef -flat and submarine slopes on lagoon side; most prominent
scour channels begin on eastern side at break in old boulder
ridge and extend westward. (Non -geomorphic evidence: Dead trees
in lagoon with tendency to cluster near western end of scour
channels . )

-12-

Conclusion ; Dominant water movement was from east to west
(ocean to lagoon) and water moved entirely across the islet
except in the extreme north and south.

IMROJ: Evidence ; Of the same kind as for Mejatto, but without

the striking fine -sediment features on the west side and except
that islet was not completely inundated.

Conclusion ; Dominant water movement east to west.

NORTHERNMOST JALUIT

Evidence: Gravel ridge upon reef flat, ocean side, comprised
largely of corals typical of reef front*; gravel sheet thinning
out from east to west (toward lagoon); boulder about k X k X 6
feet lying 15 yards to west of ridged beach rock from which it
was torn (and into which it could have been fitted); fine sedi-
ment deposits on western (lagoon) side; rubble from paved road
carried east to west, into lagoon.

Conclusion : Dominant water movement east to west.

CENTRAL JALUIT (southern Jabor and southward extending a distance of
about 1 mile south of old Sydneytown at the water tank).

Evidence : Gravel ridge upon reef flat on ocean side lower
than farther north (0.5-^ yards high as contrasted with 3-8 yards
farther north, except for one mound-like feature which was about
6 yards high, about 30 yards in diameter) and giving way to
rubble patches in some places. Emergent ridge in lagoon, evident-
ly composed of a high percentage of fine sediments as judged by
view from shore; this ridge paralleled the shore at a distance of
about 200 yards, and was barely emergent at high tide. Piece of
glass found among debris that formed ridge on reef flat on ocean
side. Rubble sheet more patchy than farther north and consists
of only scattered coral-rock fragments in series of shallow
channels that extend from near the ocean side (a few yards or
tens of yards away) westward into the lagoon. Large water tank
displaced from west to east a distance of about 200 yards
( see p. 21).

Conclusion : Dominant water movement from west to east
across islet.

PINLEP: Evidence : Small wave-cut scarp on western side of islet.
Remnants of pronounced strand-line at about 5 feet above mean
sea level on northern and eastern sides.

Conclusion : Dominant water movement probably alternately
from east and from west.

See Banner's description, p. 76.

-13-

MAJURIREK: Evidence : Pronounced but small scarp, 3-^ feet above mean
sea level, seemingly wave -cut, on western and southwestern side
of islet. This scarp under-cuts some palms.

Conclusion : Dominant water movement, west to east. If
there was water movement from east to west it was probably slight.

The conclusions stated above concerning dominant water
movement onto or across the various islets are summarized in
schematic map form in Fig. h-.

Other evidence regarding wind, wave, and storm conditions
Miscellaneous evidence is as follows:

(1) Mejatto — All houses and other buildings were demolished,
leaving not a trace that I could find. These were chiefly thatched
native huts, though some were made from pieces of wood or lumber.

(2) Imroj — Thatched huts were destroyed. Those made of boards
were at least severely damaged, while some were totally demolished and
others were partially demolished (roofs off, walls blown or washed in,
etc.).*

(3) Central to northern Jabor -- Radio tower (steel tower) went
down about 5:10 p.m., when radio went off the air (J. B. Mackenzie states
this time is correct within a few minutes; he was on Majuro, where the
broadcast was being received). All buildings demolished except for
Japanese -built blockhouses, which were sunk 5-8 feet in the coral rock.
Most buildings were completely swept away, leaving no trace, including
the plywood buildings constructed only 12-18 months before by Holmes &
Narver, American contractors. Some metal and wood remnants of buildings
were found strewn about in an area to the east of the blockhouse build-
ing that was used as the headquarters for the Trust Territory government
officials. One of the two water tanks was moved about 200 yards eastward
from its concrete platform. An almost perfectly straight trench was
scoured out to a depth of 3-4 feet, and this appears from old aerial
photographs to have been a narrow water trench in Japanese times. (The
trench runs almost due east from the lagoon to the ocean.) Scouring to a
depth of 6-8 feet occurred at the W.J corner of the southernmost block-
house, leaving an irregularly shaped pit about 12 yards in diameter.

(k) Pinlep and Majurirek — We were told that virtually all
buildings had been blown down: that thatched huts were flattened by wind
and that wooden shacks "flew apart". We observed some wood debris here
and there but all buildings that I saw had been put together again, so
this was not a direct observation.

For a different estimate of degree of damage, see Wiens, p. 29.

-14-

(5) Path of storm — According to J. B. Mackenzie, who surveyed
the damage at Mili Atoll, OPHELIA caused the most wave and water damage
on the north side of that atoll. Mili is at 6°10'N, 171°55'E. According
to Fleet Weather Central (1958) OPHELIA was heading WNW when located to
the west and slightly north of Jaluit, after passing over Jaluit.

Reconstruction of events as related to field evidence

It is impossible for me even to imagine a series of storm events that
would follow in logical order according to what is known about typhoon
structure and movement and that would satisfy all the evidence cited above.
Virtually all the evidence would be satisfied by supposing that a small,
intense typhoon with multiple centers passed over Jaluit on January 7-8,
but this relatively easy solution of the problem does not seem warranted
since I have found no known instance of multiple eyes in a typhoon a mere
50 to 70 miles across, which must have been the diameter (diameter of
winds over 63 knots) of this one to satisfy even the preponderance of the
evidence. What is most common is an eye, evidently often irregular in
shape, and which changes its size and shape almost constantly. My recon-
struction follows, placed side -by-side with the evidence both pro and con.
The reconstruction is represented by the series of schematic maps in Fig. 5

RECONSTRUCTION

1- On January 7, 1958 at 9 a.m.
(l80th meridian time) a small in-
tense typhoon was approaching
Jaluit, moving in a direction
from 80° towards 260° at a speed
of 5 to 7 knots. The storm was
following a sinuous path and was
later to curve first due westward,
then west-northwestward as it
crossed Jaluit. At the time the
circulation about the storm was
well defined with winds of 50
knots or more extending outward
to a distance of 25-30 miles in
the southwest quadrant, 30-40
miles in the NE quadrant, and
40-50 miles in the northwest
quadrant. The northwest quad-
rant held the strongest winds,
which were over 100 knots near
the storm center, and the winds
in this quadrant and around
slightly into the west were
strengthened well in advance of
the storm by greatly intensified
tradewinds that under the influ-
ence of the storm circulation
had previously backed (shifted

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS

1. a. Supporting evidence ; Winds were
northerly at North Jaluit and Imroj at
this time (Table II ). There was light
rain at Imroj, which is consistent, and
that Katje failed to report rain at N-
Jaluit is immaterial since he failed to
report rain at any time -- and no rain
at any time is a virtual impossibility.
Katje stated large waves from the east
were pounding the Jaluit reef. I
accept this and point out that it was
almost low-low tide so that this would
help loosen debris along the reef front.
Quite likely some of this coral debris
was being already thrown up on the reef
to form the debris bar that later was
so evident on the ocean side of N«
Jaluit. There is no evidence that
winds were yet strong enough to topple
trees or snap them. The winds were
still probably moderate as reported by
Morris and Katje, and I accept this as
partial evidence, consistent with later
evidence, that the center of the storm
was still far distant, about U5 nauti-
cal miles away. The estimated speed
of 5-7 knots brings the storm center
in at about 4-5 p.m., and this later

-15-

RECONSTRUCTION (CTD.)

counterclockwise) to around 10-
20°. The storm center was ill-
defined, but generally elongated
and was oriented with the major
axis normal to the direction of
storm movement. The storm center
was about 7 hours -- roughly 1+5
nautical miles — away from the
eastern islets of Jaluit. As the
storm approached it was i tens if y-
ing (see Fig. 5).

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS (CTD.)

seems borne out (discussed below).
The approach of the storm from about
80° is supported by the fact that it
had passed north of Mill Atoll.

b. Negative evidence: Morris
failed to comment on strong waves
until about 3 p.m.). I discount his
statement (a matter of what one calls
strong waves) and point out further
that it was raining (affecting visi-
bility) and that waves coming domi-
nantly from somewhat to the north of
east may have piled more heavily onto
North Jaluit than onto Imroj due to
piling of water along ocean side of
islets to the NE and "-uiding" of
waves of unusual size onto North
Jaluit. Note also that Katje was on
a very narrow islet as compared with
Morris, so that Katje could readily
see heavy surf with some waves topping
onto land whereas Morris could not.
The Majurirek chief reported strong
north winds only an hour later (10 a.m.)
with some trees down, but I must dis-
count this and believe that the winds
were merely fresh NNE with a few
branches falling and that the extreme
winds did not arrive on Majurirek until
several hours later (between 3 and h
p.m., when the chief began to report
extremely high winds with heavy rain).

c. Remarks : For elongate centers
perpendicular to storm path, note that
this was characteristic of hurricane
DOT in the vicinity of Kauai, Hawaii,
in 1959 (as shown by aircraft reports
and radar plots on file, mss. U. S.
Weather Bureau, Honolulu); and for
speed of movement, while 5-7 knots is
somewhat slow it is certainly not un-
known in this area (see data for LOLA,
Fleet Weather Central 1957). As for
small size and irregular shape of these
storms (with ill-defined centers), as
well as for their suddenness of appear-
ance, see e.g., the information on the
Hong Kong Typhoon of 1906 (Gibbs 1908).

-16-

RECONSTRUCTION (CTD.)

2. January 7- 12 (noon).
The storm center vas now about
30 nautical miles east of South-
east Pass and the storm was now
approaching from about 100°
(moving towards 280°) along the
path shown in Fig. 5 snd with
winds as also shown in that fig-
ure. Waves were very strong
from the east and against the
reef on the ocean side of the
islets from Northern Jaluit
northward. It was just past
low-low tide and debris had
now been heaped high upon the
ocean reef front in Northern
Jaluit. There were N to ME
winds at speeds in excess of 80
knots from Northern Jaluit north-
ward (on eastern islets) and
there was some toppling of trees
that were poorly rooted or were
awash near the eastern edges of
the islets. There was snapping
of branches on a wide scale,
but no snapping of trunks of any
but the very weakest trees. At
Majurirek and Pinlep the winds
were very fresh and northerly.
With the ill -de fined center,
elongated now N-S, the wind-
speeds slacked off rapidly from
N. Jaluit southward (Fig. 5)-
Occasional waves threw water
across northernmost Jaluit,
from east to west, but on Imroj
(which is a higher islet) the
waves only moved well up onto
the eastern side. Nor had waves
begun to sweep across Me j at to as
yet, although there was heavy
pounding of the boulder ridge
along the eastern side of that
islet. No waves of any magni-
tude were yet upon the western
islets, though the very fresh
northerly winds were piling some
water into the southern part of
the lagoon and producing some
water up the beaches with super-
imposed small waves generated
in the limited fetch area within

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS (CTD. )

2. a. Supporting evidence : The wind
situation generally fits that given by
the three informants, although winds
were not directly from the north as
reported. The wave (water) across
North Jaluit was as reported by Katje.
Dominant tree -fall and tree breakage
directions support the view that not
many trees were down or were snapped
this early in the sequence. Before
this happened the storm must tighten,
change direction slightly, and come
in so as to provide very high wind-
speeds from the northeast quadrant
from N. Jaluit northward on the
eastern islets.

b. Negative evidence : The Chief
on Majurirek said trees were falling
at this time. I believe he must have
been off on his time or else that he
was referring only to a very few trees
(poorly rooted) going down or to
breakage of branches, which would
require only a wind of 50 knots or so.
In this I am consistent in that field
evidence shows the preponderance of
trees going down before a wind from
Wrf to W (falling SE to E) rather than
from N or NE (Fig. 3)-

c. Remarks : The elongate center
with windspeeds decreasing very
abruptly within a distance of a few
hundred yards on N. Jaluit is neces-
sary to account for the amazingly
sharp transition from trees down from
the NE to E (northernmost Jaluit) and
from west to east (just south of
northernmost Jaluit). This point is
elaborated upon in the sequence that
follows and in the corresponding
evidence and remarks.

-17-

RECONSTRUCTION (CTD.)

the lagoon. Water was also run-
ning in through the eastern passes
and the lagoon was perhaps 1-2 feet
above normal level in the southern
end; hut still it was just above
low-low tide so this did not
represent an abnormal condition
with reference to mean sea level.

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS (CTD. )

3. January 7- k p.m. The storm
center had become smaller and
better defined and was now a few
miles to the east of northernmost
Jaluit (see Fig. 5 for location
and for winds). The t^'de had been
rising and was almost high -high.
Water was crossing central and
northern Jaluit from east to west,
and was also crossing all but the
extreme ends of Mejatto. Maximum
winds were being or had been
experienced during the past few
hours from northernmost Jaluit
northward (on eastern islets).
Speeds exceeded 100 knots and
trees were toppled. With extreme
gust speeds exceeding 150 knots
trees were snapped in this area,
but there was a very sharp wind
gradient and north central Jaluit
had not yet received winds of
these speeds. On Majurirek and
Pinlep winds were from N to NW
at speeds of close to 100 knots
and trees began to fall where they
were poorly rooted and much ex-
posed (not shielded by massing)
as along the upper beach on the
north to northwest sides of these
islets. The storm was now moving
from about 70° and towards 250°.

h. January 7- 5 p-m. The chief
significance of this time is that
now the storm center had just
passed into the lagoon ind now
also it was high-high tide.
Within the past hour the waves
crossing Mejatto and Jaluit had
entered the lagoon and set up
further waves that in combination
with the basic tidal condition had

3. a. Supporting evidence : Tree fall
evidence fits this reconstruction with
a single exception of E to W orienta-
tion of many of the fallen trees in
northernmost Jaluit (see below).
The general sequence of events as
described by informants bears out the
reconstruction here, but I have had
to move up Morris ' statements re
Imroj (that is make them earlier by
3-5 hours than what he stated) and
have had to move back (make later by
2 hours) the statements of the
Majurirek chief.

b. Negative evidence : Some of
this is covered immediately above,
where a time adjustment is explained.
The other principal negative item is
that the sequence as given in this
reconstruction does not explain the
east -to -west orientation of many of
the fallen trees on northernmost
Jaluit ( Jabor ) . Some may have been
swung around by water moving W-E;
but the broad northernmost part was
not thoroughly inundated. A tempor-
ary second eye centered over northern
Jaluit Islet would take care of things,
but since I am rightly or wrongly
eschewing multiple centers I did not
draw my map to cover this ( Fig • 5 ) •

k. a. Supporting evidence : The time
adjustments referred to above still
apply; otherwise the evidence from
informants as well as the vegetational
and geomorphic evidence support this
phase of the reconstruction of storm
events .

-18-

RECONSTRUCTIOIT (CTD.)

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS (CTD. )

caused flooding up -beach upon
Majurirek, Pinlep, and other
western islets. Trees fringing
the beach had had their roots
washed out and many had blown
down before winds that were now
backing to west at over 100 knots.
By 5:30 p.m. or shortly after
there were very strong NW to W
winds across the southern part
of the lagoon and this produced
waves that now moved west to east
from the lagoon onto Jaluit Islet.
By 5:30 the strongest winds were
past on the eastern islets north
of northernmost Jaluit, but these
strong westerly winds began to
affect central Jaluit which was
already wetted down; and between
the flow of water (west to east)
and the west winds, tree breakage
and tree toppling now set in here.
The radio tower had already gone
down in northernmost Jaluit and
about now (5:30) the water tank
was floated eastward from its
former location.

5* January 7- 7 P-m« (See Fig.
5). The storm was still intensi-
fying and had accelerated slight-
ly, to perhaps 5 knots. Further-
more, it had grown somewhat in
size and the center was now better
defined. It was centered over the
northwest part of the lagoon.
Winds were westerly on Majurirek
and Pinlep, with speeds over 100
knots. Winds were southerly on
the eastern islets, with speeds
around 80-100 knots. The water
had largely drained from Mejatto
and from the very highest parts
of Jaluit. It was raining very
hard on the western islets, but
there was only moderate rain on
the eastern islets. v. T inds were
now maximum and northerly on
Lijeron, and trees were going
down there. Some were snapping.

5« a. Supporting evidence : With
time adjustment already noted, this
fits the evidence.

-19-

6. January 7- 8 p.m. About now
the storm center cleared Jaluit
Atoll, moving slightly north of
vest with the center parsing a few
miles to the south of Lijeron.
This was an elongate center,
oriented N-S (Fig. 5). Winds
continued strong southerly over
the northeast islets, were out of
the 3W and strong on the south-
east islets, were very strong and
out of the SW on the southwest
islets, and were going to very
strong northerly at Lijeron.

7' January 7- 9-10 p.m. As the
storm continued WNW away from the
atoll the west to east wave within
the lagoon carried some water
against and slightly onto such
northeast islets as Imroj and
Mejatto.

8. January 7- 11 p.m. -midnight.
Winds had slackened and now were
generally southerly to southwester-
ly across the atoll. Unusual wave
activity had ceased save for swells
that arrived on the western islets
from the WWW and that appeared as
unusual surf on the west to north-
west sides of Majurirek, Pinlep, and
other western islets but that had
little geomorphic effect because it
was now at or very close to low-low
tide.

6. a. Supporting evidence : The evi-
dence is all supporting (informants,
vegetation, geomorphic) except that
again a time adjustment is needed for
Morris ' account re Imroj . The south
wind over Mejatto helps explain the
orientation of combed roots, as sug-
gested above (pp. 9-10). The Lijeron
and Pinlep tree -fall evidence supports
the view that the center must have
moved westward out to sea between these
islets, with a very elongate center to
account for the lack of many east-west
treefalls on Lijeron. Note that
Lijeron and Pinlep were largely not
under water, so water could not swing
many fallen trees around here as it
might have done on Jaluit or Mejatto.

7-9* Remarks: These sequences are
consistent with the evidence as shown
in Table II, in Figures 2, 3, and k,
and in the text on geomorphic evi-
dence (pp. 10-13). The sequences
also fit the fact that the storm was
located to the west and slightly to
the north of Jaluit on January 8
(see Fleet Weather Central 1958).

9. January 8. Midnight-7 a.m.
Winds lightened continuously during
this period and winds continued to
back with fresh trades reestablished
by morning. These trades washed
ashore onto Mejatto and other islets
vegetable debris that was carried out
to sea on the eastern side of the
atoll, chiefly material blown
northeast to north from more
southerly islets such as Kinajon.

-20-

RECONSTRUCTION (CTD. )

EVIDENCE AND REMARKS (CTD. )

The near high -high tide during this
period promoted this wash-in of
debris and helped form the pro-
nounced debris line later observed.
There was also some wash-up of
debris onto the west to northwest
side of the western islets during
this same period because of the
arrival of swell from the storm
whose center was now (7 a.m.)
55-60 nautical miles away to the
WNW.

FIGURE

3-4 FT. HIGH
COBBLE, PEBBLE BARS

BOULDER ABOUT 6'X6'X6'
TOP WHITE, BOTTOM STAINED/'
BROWN BY ALGAE

DEEPLY CUT CHANNELS

LAND SEVERELY ERODED

8-FT BOULDER, COBBLE BAR

V

v

LOW BOULDER BAR
ABOUT f HIGH . t

SOLID LINE DELINEATES 1945
SHORES SHOWN BY AERIAL PHOTOS;
BARS ONLY APPROXIMATELY LOCATED

[BLOCKHOUSE NO. 4 [-

STORM-CUT CHANNELS

CONCRETE
BUILDING
RUINS

*

SOUTHERN EXTENSION

JABOR ISLET, JALUIT ATOLL

1958

30 SHORE RETREAT

NUMEROUS DEAD PEMPHIS STUMPS

PARTLY BURIED BY BEACH SAND

1000

)

2000
I

3000

1

FEET
2-FT. BOULDER BAR OVERLYING OLD RAISED ROCK

STEEL COMMUNICATIONS TOWERS BLOWN DOWN
BY WESTERLY STORM WINDS

H. WIENS

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MEJATTO ISLET
FIGURE II

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-21-
III. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STORM EFFECTS*
Herold J. Wiens

Direction of wind

Direction of wind from which damage was most extensive to vegetation
varies from the northeast to the southwest sectors of the atoll. Roughly,
in the northeastern two -thirds of the atoll the direction of tree -fall was
towards the south or slightly east of south. In the southwestern third,
largely towards the east. While wave and water wash did extensive damage
in undermining or crashing out tree roots, the overthrowing of the trees
and certain structures such as towers and houses also resulted from the
wind. Thus, the tree -fall direction may be taken as an indication of the
direction of the most powerful or damaging winds.**

The islets of Jabov, Kinajon, Imroj, Ribon, Mejatto, Lijeron, Pinlep,
and Majurirek (Elizabeth) were examined by making traverses along the
beach and inland from the beach at intervals, and the directions of tree-
fall were plotted on large scale maps (Figs. 6-13). On the western reef,
Lijeron in the north suffered tree -fall from winds from the due north.
At Pinlep, 15 miles to the south, however, the damage in tree -fall was
mostly from west winds or winds from slightly north of west. On Majurirek,
eight miles southeast of Pinlep, the most damaging winds were from slight-
ly south of west. These same winds moved eastward across the lagoon to
blow down two steel towers 150 feet high on the northern part of Jaluit.
However, a mile northward toward Jabor on this SE reef the winds were most
strong from slightly north of west, pushing lagoon water and carrying from
its foundation a steel petroleum tank, 30 feet in diameter (as measured by
pacing) and 25 feet high, and setting it on the land 330 feet away in a
direction slightly south of east (see PI. I-c).

* Note : In this section, Wiens describes the effects of OPHELIA upon
Jaluit Atoll. He first presents his general observations and conclusions
with reference to wind directions and major changes throughout the atoll.
Thereafter, he presents his observations islet by islet. Many of his
observations are entered upon the islet maps that he prepared and that
comprise the figures referred to in this section. It is intended that
these maps be used in conjunction with the text since the maps often
contain specific information not included in the text. — D.I.B.

** Blumenstock stresses the first powerful winds rather than the most
powerful, and lays more stress on the effects of washing out of roots,
see pp. 8-9. Fosberg considers that in addition the energy exerted by
the coral-debris -filled waves played an appreciable part in uprooting
of trees (personal discussion with Fosberg). --D.I.B.

-22-

Northward of here scarcely a mile away the strongest winds were
"blowing from a north or slightly west of north direction, or directly
down the length of the wide part of Jahor Islet from the channel.
Similar winds caused the extensive damage observed at Imroj, Kinajon
and Mejatto.*

Degree of damage

The heaviest damage to vegetation and soils occurred in the northeast
and southeast reef sectors where salt water swept across the reef and land
most extensively. Of the islets observed, the most extensive damage pro-
bably occurred on Mejatto and Imroj where from 70 - 90 percent of economic
trees were blown over (PI. X-a , PI. II-c). Jabor and Enejet suffered
similar wind and wave force but neither had many coconut or breadfruit
trees, and the land here is mostly government reserves. On the other
hand, islets mostly affected by the westerly winds were less damaged,
largely because of lack of salt water inundation very far inland from
the beach. Wind damage also appears to have been less extensive.

In general, the interior of the larger islets and of the wider
sections of long islets have less disturbed or undisturbed soil condi-
tions although damage to trees may be just as severe in the middle as
along parts of the periphery, depending upon local situations and at
times apparently upon the whimsicalities of wind gusts. In the following
discussion, islets will be taken up individually.

Jabo r

The islet of Jabor is connected to the islet of Jaluit by a contin-
uous strip of narrow land with only small breaks resulting from typhoon
OPHELIA. It is difficult to tell, therefore, where Jabor ends and Jaluit
begins. The whole section examined and shown in two large scale charts
(Figs. 6, 7) will be considered part of Jabor Islet. The section examined
by the writer on foot is about 12, 300 feet in length from the north end of
Jabor southward to the two steel towers where the islet widens. Here are
the walls of 3 former concrete buildings, one of large size (150' by 50').
About lj-000 feet south of the old hospital tower on Jabor is the remains
of a Japanese petroleum storage depot where so-called Sydney Pier was
situated. At the base of this pier is a large circular open -top tank
surrounded by piled up coral rubble rising about 20 feet. Before the
typhoon, two steel tanks 30 feet in diameter rested on circular concrete
bases adjacent to the pier base and lagoonward of the large tank.

Between this locality and the wide part of Jabor and between this
and the steel towers only the more or less intact remains of former
Japanese blockhouses or gun emplacements serve as suitable points of
reference. I have numbered these for reference on the maps (Figs. 6, 7)
as Blockhouses 1 and 2 north of the tanks and 3 and k south of the tanks.

* See discussions by Blumenstock, pp. 8-9, and by Fosberg, p. 53
for somewhat different views. — D.I.B.

-23-
Bar formation off Jabor

Coral rubble bars on the reef flat have developed as a result of the
typhoon for almost the entire length of the seaward side of the reef from
where Jabor widens opposite the old hospital southward to just past the
steel towers (PI. I -a, b). The highest rubble bars rise to about k feet
above high tide at a number of places northward of a point about 2000 feet
south of the large open tank. This height is indicated by the lack of
algal staining in the upper part as contrasted with the brown stain in
the tidal lower half. Southward of this point to the steel towers, the
rubble accumulations generally are from half a foot to 3 or k feet above
the reef flat . In the vicinity of the towers, they apparently rest on
old beach rock. In the southern sector they form discontinuous strips
20-100 feet wide- Most of the bars are separated from the shoreside
beachrock by 50 - 100 feet of the original reef flat. There are 3 stretches
of these offshore bars south of the large tank rising to about k feet
above high tide . North of the large tank there are two other such bars.
In each case, the points of highest accumulation adjoin or are opposite
storm-scoured breaks across the land from or to the lagoon. The land on
the lagoon-side opposite these bars generally appears to have suffered
severe erosion of the sediments of which it is constituted.

Since broken glass and other material deriving both from the land
and from the lagoon have been found in the seaward reef bars, some of the
material in these bars obviously came from the land and lagoon. However,
much of the material appears to be derived from the outer reef margin and
parts of the reef flat. Slabs of coral rock 2-3 inches thick form imbri-
cated beds on the seaward slopes of the bars, and the landward fronts of
the bars have the abrupt terminations of delta talus. Local inhabitants
also stated that the bars smelled of rotting reef organisms after the
storm, so that fresh materials from the live reef must have formed a large
part of the bar. We may conclude, therefore, that the reef margin also
suffered severe mechanical erosion from the waves, although much of the
debris may have come from the bases and lower parts of the surge channels,
as indicated by Banner (pp. 76-77).

So far as the writer observed, few large blocks of rock were torn
off from the reef margin and tossed up onto the reef, unless some were
buried under the higher accumulations of cobble -size and smaller boulder-
size debris in the seaward reef bars. However, on the new bar on the
lagoon side about half way between Blockhouses nos. 3 and h there is a
block of coral about 6 feet in diameter which appears freshly broken off ;
because the top half standing out of the tides is white and lacks algal
staining, while the lower half is only stained light brown where algae
have grown between tide levels (PI. I-d).

Bars are also found on the lagoon reef (see charts, figs. 6, J),
freshly formed as shown by their white coloring. Lack of time did not
permit close examination of these. The most prominent bars run in an
arc from the large coral block mentioned in the foregoing paragraph to
the Sydney Pier base opposite the large tank. A fresh gravel bar also
runs roughly parallel to the land strip northeastward from the broken
remnants of Sydney Pier.

-2k-

Just northward of Blockhouse no. k a fresh looking bar has formed on
the lagoons ide somewhat northward of low cobble bars on the seaward side.
A new bar was added also to the lagoon reef in the northernmost parts of
Jabor between the main pass and the old pier where the rusting hulk of a
ship sits on the beach. This runs for about 800 feet in a narrow strip
200 - 300 feet offshore. The materials on it appear to have been derived
from parts of the shore near the northern tip of the islet of Jabor and
from sediments in the channel fringe.

Of the sections observed, the materials forming the bars were mostly
pebbles, cobbles, and small boulders. Very few sand-size particles were
apparent in most of the bars. This seems to indicate that most of the
finer sediments may have been washed into deeper lagoon or ocean waters
and that there was little disturbance of the lagoon bottom where most of the
sand and finer material normally accumulate. This accords with the
limited bottom inspections near shore by Banner (p. 7$), who found the
corals under 3-k feet of water in the lagoon apparently generally unaffect-
ed by the storm. However, when the writer examined the same areas on foot
in 1956, he found virtually no sand beaches along this entire stretch of
land either on the lagoon or seaward side. During the present examina-
tion the writer found only one small section of the beach several hundred
feet long and about 20 feet wide where fine sand was mixed with coarse
pebbles and cobbles. This was on the seaward side not more than 200 -
300 feet northward of the fallen steel towers.

Land erosion and land-build-up on Jabor

In general, although in a few places debris accumulation has widened
the land area and has added to the land surface above tide level, the net
result appears to have been a significant reduction in the land area
suitable for economic plantations. For the most part the old algae -
blackened beach rock on the seaward side has remained intact, although
here and there the violence of the storm has broken off slabs several
feet in diameter, undermined sections of the rock on the landward side
or scoured a breach between lagoon and seaward reefs. Undoubtedly the
greater consolidation of this generally intertidal rock has served to
protect the land in the manner of a low seawall.

Scouring of the less consolidated rock and sediments directly land-
ward of the top of the beach rock in most cases has left a trough between
the line of beach rock and the new shore ridge that now runs 10 - 20 feet
from the old beach ridge that once adjoined the beach rock (PI. II -a). At
high tide this trough is partly filled with water. This general aspect is
observable the entire length of the seaward side from the steel towers
northward to where the island widens.

Scouring of this narrow part of the islet, which occupies all but
about 3000 feet of the entire 12,000-foot section examined, is more
severe on the lagoon side. In some instances this has resulted in
channels cut almost or entirely through from lagoon to seaward reef,
probably by headward erosion by water pouring over the land from the
seaward side.*

* Blumenstock believes there was primary water movement from seaward
but secondary movement from lagoon to sea, see pp. 17-18. --D.I.B.
/But see also p. 12. — Ed77

-25-

The addition of debris to the land has largely been in a layer from
the newly formed shore ridge toward the lagoon (PI. Ill-b). This type of
debris addition is usually found only where the land widens to 200 - 300
feet or more. In the narrower parts no additional layer occurs on top of
the old land surface. On the contrary, a layer of partly consolidated or
loose material may most often be observed to have been stripped from
narrow and sometimes from wider land surfaces, occasionally with small
remnants of the original layers left in the form of platforms.

Especially noted erosional features in this section include a beach
stretch 200 feet north of the steel towers where the new seaward shore
ridge is now 30 feet inland from the seaward beach rock. Stumps of now
dead Pemphis trees stand out of the sand and gravel all the way out to
the edge of the beach rock, showing that the vegetated land reached this
far prior to typhoon OPHELIA (PI. Ill-a) .

Lagoonward of the concrete buildings next to the steel towers wave
action had washed out a channel from the reef that bifurcates to form two
channels cutting inland around the northern sides of the two buildings
nearest the seaward reef. The channels each end in a kind of swirl on
the seaward sides of the buildings and do not cut all the way across this
wide part of the land. The position of the buildings may have tended to
funnel the ocean water into a stronger stream causing headward erosion of
the land at these places.

Other especially noteworthy washouts of land occurred about 800 feet
south of Blockhouse no. k' 3 at other areas half-way between Blockhouses 3
and k} 500 feet south of Blockhouse 3, to the north and south of the high
mound surrounding the large storage tank, and in most of the areas north-
ward of Blockhouses 2 and 1 in the narrow part of the islet.

The widest channel cut across the land occurs at the north base of
the high mound around the large tank (PI. I-c). Here, at high tide,
water runs across into the lagoon in a large stream. A smaller channel
cuts through a h foot depth of conglomerate about 55° feet north of
Blockhouse 2 (PI. II -b), while still another channel has been cut through
as far as the seaward beach rock about 900 feet north of Blockhouse no. 1.

On Jabor proper (the northern 3000 feet or wide part of the islet)
the most damaging winds blew southeasterly roughly parallel to the islet
as indicated by the direction of tree -fall*. Shore damage was severe all
around the island. Inundation apparently occurred over most of the islet >
although the soil surface was not much disturbed in the higher middle
parts 400 - 500 feet inland from the north end and 300 - kOQ feet from
the remaining 6-foot high concrete seawall on the northeast side. The
seawall was broken in its southern 200 - 300 feet as far as the triangular
concrete structure which dates back to German times. The deposition of
gravel and rocks was much reduced by the protection of the seawall along

* For different estimates see Blumenstock, p. 8.
— D.I.B.

-26-

the northeast side. Beginning with the triangular structure, however,
gravel sheet deposition with a front depth of up to three feet advanced
inland 200 - 300 feet from the seaward shore ridge as far south as the
building occupied by the expedition and by the agriculturist. From this
building southward the entire land surface has been strongly disturbed
either by scouring or by deposition. The surface is covered with pebbles,
cobbles and small boulders up to 6 inches thick and 1-2 feet in other
dimensions. Except for the toppled trees and still standing trunks of
Pandanus the scene looks like the bed of a rocky river. Only a few strips
and patches of the original soil surface are identified by occasional
growths of grasses such as Lepturus .

On the lagoon shore, the two stone and concrete piers on which the
government generator equipment and a warehouse stood now are merely
piles of coral rubble that protrude into the lagoon. The former U-foot
high seawall of cemented coral blocks along the lagoon shore has been
stripped down to remnants 1-2 feet high, and at the north end some 200
feet of it has been torn off and upturned altogether. Rubble from the
lagoon reef flat and shore has been scattered inland 30-50 feet in the
northern half of the islet. The greatest piling up of coral rubble has
occurred on the shore facing the channel, for the most damaging winds
blew directly inshore across the channel from the north and hit this
coast area squarely*.

Near the bend in the seawall on the eastern part of the channel
shore a 50 foot break in the wall allowed the storm waves to scour out
a semi-circular hollow backed by a curved shore ridge of pebbles, with
additional debris spreading inland from it. At the northern point of
the islet the seawall is buried by a gravel and rubble shore ridge that
rises to the highest peak of any seen on the various islets, about 10
feet above low tide. This ridge slopes channel-ward in a gravel beach
out about a hundred feet and drops off into deep channel water. Since,
prior to the typhoon, the bottom at the base of the seawall dropped off
quickly into the depths of the channel, the amount of debris filling
in the channel fringe here is considerable. The shoaling of water in
this area and westward across one of the branch channels has made it
hazardous for ships to enter by the most direct channel to the Jabor
anchorage, and forces ships such as the Roque to use the more northerly
channel running northward past Enejet.

Inland, rubble has been deposited in a two-foot depth around the
concrete walls of the agriculturist's former home completed just two
years before the typhoon and situated 100 feet from the seawall.
Farther inland, however, the ground surface is little disturbed, and
ornamental croton hedges continue to flourish, although most of the
trees are blown over.

* For differing views, see Blumenstock, p. 8.
-- D.I.B.

-27-

Soil and vegetational damage on Jabor Islet

In general, 95$ of the trees on this islet were topped or snapped
off at varying heights above the ground. From the concrete house in
which the expedition stayed southward, virtually none of the original
ground surface and ground vegetational cover remain except at small high
spots such as the slope up to the large storage tank. In this area
coconut trees still may be found growing at widely separated intervals.
Almost all Pandanus appear to be killed, although the prop roots and part
of the lower trunk may remain. No trees of large size grew in this area
except near the Expedition Headquarters. These are mostly Calophyllum ,
and they have been toppled, with their great shallow root systems stand-
ing high in the air. Some of them have re -sprouted leaves on a few limbs,
since the trees often retain a few roots still buried in their growing
positions. On a number of the wider rocky platforms of the islet, how-
ever, the hardy Pemphis , stripped of smaller branches and twigs and left
with vertical trunks 1-2 inches in diameter, has begun sprouting leaves
on these remnants (PI. VTII-c) and will no doubt soon be essentially
recovered.

On the wide northern part of Jabor a few large Calophyllum trees
near the base of the northern pier have not been uprooted and are sprout-
ing leaves from trunks and large limb remnants. All the Casuarina trees
which were up to 6 - 8 inches in trunk diameter were uprooted by wave
wash and wind* and most of the other large trees and the coconut and
Pandanus trees were uprooted or killed by trunk snapping. However,
shrubs, weeds and grasses over most of the interior in an area 500 feet
wide by some 1000 - 1500 feet long appear relatively undisturbed and
similar in aspect to what they were in 1956.

Damage to structures

In general, all wooden buildings were demolished and thatched
houses smashed flat by the wind. Some roofs were pulled back into
position and are temporarily used. All houses require rebuilding,
however. Concrete structures stood up well although the lower stories
were inundated and doors and windows washed out. Cisterns mostly
remained intact, but were contaminated.

Kinajon Islet

This islet stands between two of the channels of the Northeast Pass
and across the channel southeast of Imroj Islet (Fig. l) • It is an
oblong islet about 2500 feet in length by about 1500 feet in width at the
widest part (Fig. 8). Much of the northern third of the islet appears to
be occupied by a depression partly overgrown by mangroves. A smaller man-
grove depression also is found in the eastern bulge of the islet. The
southwestern third formerly (during World War II ) contained some Japanese
vegetable gardens covering about an acre in the middle. This area has
fewer trees and a more open aspect.

* But see Fosberg, p. 5^--- F.R.F.

-28-

The north end of the islet with the large mangrove swamp faces the
seaward reef. Coral debris up to small -boulder size was carried inland
by storm waves as much as 50 - 100 feet along the northern third of the
shore -line, filling the seaward parts of the large mangrove swamp with
gravel. The front of this deposit is 2-3 feet high. This deposition
did not occur at the channel sides of the islet in the wide western inden-
tation or along the eastern and southern shores. The latter two sectors
were in the lee of the waves. The western channel escaped such inshore
deposition possibly because of lack of reef shoaling from the deep channel
and perhaps because the waves may have run more parallel with the coast
than across it.

The beach sediments deposited by the storm in the western indentation
are mostly sand and silt with small amounts of pebbles. The only other
beach with similar sandy character is a small section 150 - 200 feet long
directly southwest of the eastern bulge of the islet. The beach in the
northern third of the islet is composed of coarse pebbles, cobbles and
small boulders. In the rest of the shoreline small to medium size
pebbles form the beach and shore ridges.

Erosion of the original shore appears most severe in the northeast
sector where a 20 -foot wide strip inland from the old beach rock has been
scoured away and the new shore ridge moved this distance inward. At the
southwest end erosion has eaten away about 10 feet of the original land
along the shore, and about the same amount of erosion occurred as a result
of the storm in the northeast sector just north of the eastern bulge of
the islet. In the southern leeward and lagoonward sectors, however, an
initial scouring of the shore washed out the roots of strand trees.
Subsequent to this, pebble and cobble deposition has added a 10 - 20-foot
wide strip of loose sediments to the shore. In the southeast lagoonside
bend of the islet there are two shore ridges or storm ramparts 20 feet
apart, and the strand trees blown over by the storm are partly buried by
sediments.

The tree -fall direction in most parts of the islet was slightly east
of south. * The largest percentage of tree destruction appears to be in
the northern peripheral areas where an estimated 9°fj of the trees were
uprooted. The largest percentage of trees left standing and growing
appear to be around the small mangrove depression in the eastern bulge
of the islet. Here about one -half of the coconut trees remain standing
with growing fronds.

In most of the rest of the islet between 60 - 75$ of the trees were
felled. The taller mangrove trees had their foliage stripped off the top
half, and some are dead, but most of them are forming new leaves. The
smaller lower mangroves appear little damaged and relatively flourishing.

Except for the parts of the periphery of the islet damaged by gravel
deposition, by storm wave scouring, or by uprooting of trees, the ground
cover of low plants such as grass, weeds and shrubs appear to have been
affected by the storm.

* No one dominant direction according to Fosberg, notes. --D.I.B.

-29-

Imroj Islet

Imroj lies across the pass northwest from Kinajon and is about ^,200
feet long by 1000 feet vide 1000 feet from the northwest end, and about
half this width in the southeast half (Fig. 9). It was and is the princi-
pal inhabited islet presently having about half of the atoll's population.
Prior to the storm it had a very luxuriant aspect, with dense plantings
of coconut, pandanus and many breadfruit trees.

Marked shore -line changes have occurred all around the islet. The
old pier was not very well built and consisted mainly of uncemented coral
blocks piled up in a regular line covered by coral sand and silt. This
is now merely a mass of coral blocks protruding lagoonward into water of
k - 6 foot depths.

The greatest shore and land damage has been on the seaward or north-
east side. The islet extends roughly northwest to southeast, and the most
damaging winds came from the northwest at a diagonal across the islet, as
indicated by the direction of tree -f all. * Violent beach and shore scouring
occurred on the seaward side, and pebbles, cobbles and small boulders were
carried inland and deposited 50 - 150 feet from the old shore ridge. The
mangrove depression at the northwest end is partly filled with gravel.

Water from the ocean scoured several shallow depressions across
the lagoonward half, in the southeastern two -thirds of the islet. The
closeness of the coconut and Pandanus plantings and the depth of root
penetration made the soil disturbance unusually great. Each over-
turned tree resulted in the pulling out of a great mass of soil and
gravel by the densely massed roots and the excavation of large holes
2-3 feet deep and 6-8 feet in diameter. The result is an extra-
ordinarily rough surface which presents a very difficult problem in
the replanting of the islet.

Vegetation damage

An estimated 90 to 95$ of the economic trees were uprooted by the
storm and a large part of the ground cover was killed on the seaward
half of the islet.

House damage

All houses on the islet were demolished. Some reconstruction has
been done through the use of scrap material from the old structures,
but many of the people still must live in the most make -shift shelters.
The materials for thatch-making are available only in very small
quantities since most of the Pandanus and coconut leaves were destroyed
by the storm, and few are growing.

* North to northeast according to Fosberg (notes) and Blumenstock
--D.I.B.

-30-

Ribon Islet

Ribon is a tiny islet about 450 feet long by about 250 feet vide
oriented northeast to southwest (Fig. 10). A strip of beach rock runs
roughly at right angles to this direction from the middle of the north-
east beach northwestward for about 500 feet. Small boulders and gravel
form a sheet up to a foot in depth near the northwest end of the beach
rock strip and about 100 feet in diameter. A few yards farther north-
westward a pebble and cobble bar about 60 feet wide rises to about 6 feet
above the reef flat and runs at lower heights and narrower widths in
three discontinuous strips in a southwesterly direction. This bar
appears to have been freshly built by the typhoon waves.

The northeast end of the islet faces the pass opening to the
ocean, and a 20 -foot wide strip of the former land appears to have been
scoured away between the old beach rock and former shoreline and the
present shore ridge. Pebbles and cobbles have been washed inland and
partly fill a rocky depression about 100 feet wide and 300 feet long
running parallel to the northeast shore. A thriving stand of shrubby
Pemphis grows on the rock of the depression.

At the southwest end of the islet a cobble and gravel spit has been
built lagoonward for a distance of about 220 feet in a strip 5-6 feet
wide and up to about high tide level or slightly above. At the landward
end the current eddy of the storm waves apparently swirled to form an
oblong to circular rampart or beach ridge around a depression 1-2 feet
below the ridge level and filled with flotsam.

The islet has a high shore ridge all around it formed of pebbles
and cobbles. In the southern half of the islet there is a double shore
ridge which rises to the highest level on this side of the islet. While
the strongest storm waves appear to have come from the north and piled
up the 6-foot bar on the reef flat in this direction, the direction of
tree -fall was to the southwest, indicating a wind of maximum violence
from the direction of the open pass or northeast. The position of
Mejatto Islet and of the pass may have influenced somewhat the apparent-
ly differing direction of the tree fall both on Imroj and Mejatto from
that on Ribon. The protection afforded by Mejatto situated to the wind-
ward (with reference to the storm) of Ribon, also may have resulted in
the decreased tree damage. Some 6-10 coconut trees were downed, lh
were left standing and growing. Most of the Pisonia trees still have
their trunks and chief limbs intact and are regrowing leaves. Guettarda
and Scaevola growing among the rotting old coconut stumps and Asplenium
nidus continue to flourish in the interior of the islet. So little
disturbance on such a small islet can only be attributed to its geographic
position relative to Mejatto Islet and the open pass.

Mejatto Islet

Mejatto Islet is about 12,500 feet long and from U50 - 600 feet wide,
although near the northern end it widens to over 2,200 feet (Fig. l).
Its long axis is roughly north northwest to south southeast. It lies
north of the pass KW of Imroj (Fig. l).

-31-

This islet suffered even more from wind and wave destruction than
Imroj. With the exception of about the northern 2000 feet and 500 - 600
feet on the southern end, the entire islet appears to have "been swept
by ocean water and severely eroded and cut up. Gravel sheets were laid
over large parts of it from the seaward side half to three-quarters of
the way across the islet. Many channels were cut across the islet.

Coconut, Pandanus and other trees not only were blown over and washed
out but a large number were washed into the lagoon where many stumps are
visible on the lagoon reef and many trunks stand in the deeper water of
the lagoon slope. From 1 to k feet of the original soil were washed from
much of the islet although in other areas 1-3 feet of gravel cover the
original surface (EL. II -d, PI. X-b).

A map for plotting data directly was not made before going to this
islet. Instead a traverse line by plane table was made by Blumenstock
and the writer down the length of the islet southward from a point 3000
feet from the north end, and notes were taken along the route of the
traverse which was measured by pacing (Fig. 11). Most of the traverse
route was near the seaward shore -ridge. The return trip to the point of
origin w s made separately by Blumenstock and by the writer, who paced the
last leg of the traverse (2*4-75 feet) alone and returned along the lagoon
side of the islet pacing only the first 500 feet from the south end. The
features noted on the map of Mejatto (Fig. 11) thus are less exactly located
and less correctly oriented than on the other maps made by the writer.*

At the starting point a very large Calophyllum tree standing at the
lagoon shore has survived the storm. Its branches were broken back to
the few remaining main limbs, but leaves are sprouting again from them.

Immediately to the south of this tree ocean water had poured across
and scoured out a large channel across the islet. Coral debris from this
area forms a convex bar on the lagoon side reef enclosing a shallow pool.
Many similar bars and pools occur along the length of the islet opposite
other channels cut across the islet so that the bars give a scalloped
appearance to the lagoon side.

At station 3 (700 feet south of station l) the land is badly eroded
and many coconut tree trunks still standing have lost their crowns. A
channel is almost cut through to the seaward reef by headward erosion and
is about 150 feet wide.

At station k (560 feet south of 3) the erosion channel makes a 90-
foot break in the ledge rock at the seaward side and a hole filled vith
water at low tide is scoured out landward of the beach. Two to three
feet of the original surface are stripped from the seaward half of the
islet, leaving high mounds of gravel where Pandanus or coconut roots
remain in place.

A characteristic feature on this islet is the scour -pit formed on the
down-stream side of the tree stumps opposite the accumulation of gravel
and flotsam on the upstream side (see McKee, p. ho).

Traverse distances given are, I believe, correct within lOJj — D.I.B.

-32-

While the lagoon sides of islets most often have sand beaches,
Mejatto's sand "beaches (if there were any) appear to have been washed
away into the lagoon leaving only pebble and cobble beaches. Washed out
tree stumps are numerous on the shallow lagoon reef and slope between
stations h and 5-

The distance between stations k and 5 is 365 feet and between 5 and
6 it is 825 feet. About 200 feet south of station 5 is a barren wash or
channel cut through? with no vegetation left. In this area a blown over
Barringtonia tree 2 feet in diameter is sprouting a few leaves from the
trunk. Some 550 feet south of station 5 a channel working headward from
the lagoon side has left a V-shaped indentation. On the seaward side is
a low spread -out cobble and boulder bar. The land between sea and lagoon,
here about 275 feet wide from shore ridge to the channel head, is badly
eroded and pitted and extremely hummocky. Some 3-7 feet of the soil and
gravel have been removed.

In the vicinity of station 6 three trees with wide buttresses, which
are probably breadfruit, are still standing upright but have had branches,
bark and leaves stripped and appear dead. Many coconut tree stumps lie
on the lagoon reef.

At station 6 there is another lagoon outwash channel-indentation,
and at the mouth of it lies a dead breadfruit tree trunk with roots and
some limbs. Near the lagoon close to a standing breadfruit tree trunk
and two lagoon shore Calophyllum trees a patch of the original soil,
black humus mixed with sand, remains. Lepturus grass growing in a thick
mat on this soil apparently survived the typhoon inundation.

Stations 6 and 7 are separated by 550 feet. Two discontinuous
patches of bouldery rubble lie off the seaward beach here but are not
heaped up sufficiently to constitute bars. Stations 7 and 8 are 550 feet,
and 8 and 9 are 825 feet apart. In the vicinity of station 9 there
appears to have been a large breadfruit grove prior to the typhoon;
10 - 12 large trees with buttressed trunks and limb sections still
standing indicate the remains of this grove. Much flotsam has been
accumulated around their bases.

Station 10 lies 1310 feet south of station 9 and from station 10 to
the southeast end of the islet is 2^+75 feet. North and south of station
9 on the seaward reef from 5 - 150 feet offshore are patches of scatter-
ed coral cobbles and small boulders.

Between stations 9 and 10 there is an extensive scoured-out backridge
trough inshore from the new pebble shore ridge. The central part of the
islet rises to about the ridge height or more and is covered by a sheet
of gravel. Most of the coconut and Pandanus trunks and stumps have been
uprooted and washed lagoonward. Few remain standing.

This general aspect is found southward over most of the area between
station 10 and the end of the islet, except for the last 500 feet.
Around the curve of the shore lagoonward of the pass between Mejatto and
Imroj two pebble and cobble ridges flank the shore, the inner one about
20 feet inland. The lagoon half of this part of the islet has retained

-33-

much of its original vegetation. Part of the area is occupied by a
mangrove depression separated from the lagoon only by a pebble shore
ridge.

There are two or three separate depressions in which mangroves are
growing in this part of the islet. The one nearest the end of the islet
is partly filled with pebbles and cobbles washed in from the seaward side
(PI- III-c). Many of the small mangrove trees appear to have been broken
off but some stalks are still alive and have re -sprouted. Many low young
coconut trees also have survived in this area. Northward of the southern
mangrove depression and its surrounding trees there has been considerable
erosion of the land back of the lagoon shore. A pool 3 feet deep and 20
by 50 feet in horizontal dimensions has been scoured out and many coconut
palms overturned but not washed from the site of growth.

In this vicinity and adjacent to an outwash channel-indentation
stands a concrete cistern with brackish water. It was sunk 2 feet into
the ground with the walls rising 2.5 feet above the old ground level.
Here the surface of the ground is not greatly disturbed. Northward of
this the soils are badly eroded and cut up. Approximately opposite
station 7 hut on the lagoon side of the islet is another mangrove depres-
sion elongated parallel to the axis of the islet. Pebbles and cobbles
have filled in about three -fourths of the depression from the seaward
wash to a depth of about three feet (PI. Ill-d).

The extreme northwest end of Mejatto was not visited by the writer,
but a view from the schooner in the lagoon showed many more coconut and
other trees to be standing here. Obviously, less wind and water damage
had occurred in this widest part of the islet.

Lijeron Islet

This small islet on the northwest reef measures an estimated 300 by
600 feet but was not paced off.

On the east end a sand beach 50 feet wide borders the islet. The
north and south sides are concave indentations protected from the normal
waves from the east and have developed beach rock. At the west end
there is a narrow neck of rock extending to a rock platform less than
half the size of the eastern part of the islet and supporting a pure
dense stand of Pemphis . This contrasts with the almost pure stand of
Pisonia on the eastern and larger and higher part of the islet. A few
Cordia and Tournefortia trees and perhaps half a dozen coconut trees also
are on the eastern section. There appears to be little significant topo-
graphic change resulting from the storm save possibly the development of
a long sand hook southward from the eastern sand beach. Some sand was
spread in a sheet half-way across the islet from the north.

The vegetation on this small islet also survived well. A few
Pisonia and Cordia and 2-3 coconut trees were toppled, the direction of
fall being due south.

-3k-

This isolated uninhabited islet is the nesting place for hundreds of
white -capped noddy terns which are relatively tame. Most of the nests
contained a young chick or an egg at the time of our visit. Overhead
circled many terns and frigate birds.

About a dozen terns and one young frigate bird were caught by the
Jaluit islanders from our schooner to take home for eating. Some eggs
also were collected apparently for the same purpose.

Pinlep Islet

Pinlep Islet is situated on the west reef of Jaluit (Fig. l).
Between the islet and the lagoon proper is a faroe or secondary lagoon
of relatively shallow depths resulting from the upbuilding of a reef
enclosing a triangular "body of water. The northwest shore faces a wide
reef flat, hut the oceanward reef to the south is narrow. The islet is
about 8,500 feet long. The eastern half runs between 50° and 800 feet
in width. The central portion of the western half is widest, about 2,200
feet. The main inhabited parts appear to have been along the lagoon-
facing sectors of this wide portion (Fig. 12).

Our small boat made a landing near the middle of the islet after
crossing the secondary lagoon. The schooner had to stand some distance
off the reef of the secondary lagoon so as not to drift onto the reef,
since the wind blew toward this reef from the east.

In an interview with the oldest inhabitant, named Brown-Smith, we
were informed that the first severe storm wind of the typhoon blew from
the north starting at about 6 p.m. By about 10 p.m. the wind had shifted
to blow from the south with great violence. Our informant stated that it
was this wind that blew down most of the trees. However, almost all the
trees downed had fallen in an easterly direction, so that the most violent
blow must have come from the west. If the first violent winds were from
the north followed by violent west winds, as the tree -fall appears to
indicate, the cyclonic whirl must have moved westward and then northwest-
ward.

The most severe damage inflicted on the trees appears to have been
near the western end of the islet where an estimated two -thirds to three-
quarters of the coconut, Pandanus, breadfruit and other trees were killed.
The central part of the south and seaward sides of the islet appear to
have had the smallest proportion of the trees toppled, between one -third
and one -half . The writer did not traverse the eastern half of the islet
and cannot describe the extent of damage in this portion.

Along the beach north of the Brown-Smith hut, coconut trees were bent
over northeastward, but were not completely overturned. Many breadfruit
trees were toppled over along the village road parallel to the lagoon
beach. Others remain standing but have most of the limbs broken off.
These and others with some large roots still in the ground are sending
out new leaves. Near the northwest beach a mangrove stand in a mucky
depression has most of its trees stripped of leaves and twigs, and the

-35-

trees appear dead. The northwest facing shore here is badly eroded and
has retreated 10-15 feei. . The character of the "beach sediments along the
shores observed are sho-.n in Fig. 12.

Inundation was most severe and penetrated farthest inland at the
vest end of the islet, where the shoreline appears to have been scoured
back 10-15 feet, while water-borne sediments and flotsam were carried in
forty feet or more from the shore ridge. On the southerly section of this
western end many Guettarda, Scaevola and Tournefortia , toppled over but
only partly washed out, are sending out profuse leaf sprouts. About 1500
feet from the west end a breadfruit tree trunk still standing 8O-90 feet
high is sprouting leaves from parts of the large limbs remaining, although
all smaller branches are gone. Along this south shore there appears to
have been little salt water penetration inshore.

Majurirek Islet

Majurirek Islet is roughly 3000 feet in length (Fig. 13). Its long
axis is aligned almost due north and south. Its greatest width, about
1100 feet, is near the south end, and it narrows gradually northward until
at about 500 feet from its northern tip it has a width of some 600 feet.
A mangrove depression about 1000 feet long by 250 feet wide occupies the
south central interior of the islet. However, only sparse patches of
mangrove are found, largely near the southeast fringes. Most of the
depression is an open pool of salty or brackish water. A much smaller
mangrove depression occurs near the southeast shore of the islet just
west of the village path.

The character of the shore and beach areas at the time of the
visit by the writer is .shown in Fig. 13* In general, the severest storm
winds of Typhoon 0PHELL, came from the west, as indicated by the plotted
direction of tree -fall in the chart. This accords with the observations
made on Pinlep, also on the west reef, as well as with the observations
made in the southern extension of Jabor Islet where the steel towers were
also blown down in an eastward direction. Locally, the directions of tree-
fall were not always toward the east. In a few instances where strand
trees were undermined by wave wash the directions of fall were toward the
beach. On the ocean side in the extreme north shore area the dominant
direction of tree -fall appears to have been toward the southeast. In the
southwest shore area the direction of tree -fall seems mainly somewhat
north of east. At the southeast end the tree -fall was toward the south-
east. Along the lagoon shore the direction was dominantly lagoonward or
eastward.

Of the islets examined, this one appears the least changed morpho-
logically along the shores. Inundation by ocean or lagoon water appears
to have been restricted to a narrow zone of a few yards from the shore
and only occurred locally. No significant amount of sediment was washed
inshore, and the shores were only slightly scoured. Beach character
probably was changed, but, without information on the nature of the
beaches before the storm, the writer cannot evaluate this change. Shore
retreat owing to wave -scouring occurred on the lagoonward side of the
southeast bend of the islet about 100 feet north of the beach rock forma-
tion. Here an old family grave -plot was partly eroded away. The maximum
retreat appears to have occurred just at and just south of the northwest

-36-

"bend of the seaward shore, where from 3 to 5 feet may have been scoured
away from the shore. In the southern half of the seaward area, shore
retreat appears to have been less than two feet. This is the only islet
aside from the small Lijeron islet ("Bird Islet") where a considerable
sand beach development was observed or retained. Characteristically, this
sand is on the lagoon beaches, some of it overlying beach rock.

In the interior the only morphological change resulted from the
excavation of holes or pits when falling trees brought out with their
root clumps large amounts of gravel and soil held by the roots. Since
many trees were toppled, the topography is very uneven where this
occurred. Pandanus trees were mostly snapped off below their crowns,
with roots and main trunks still standing although dead, Where they
were killed, coconut trees tended to be uprooted rather than snapped off
below the crowns. Many of the breadfruit trees likewise had all major
limbs broken off, but the trunk with remnants of limbs remains standing,
with roots still in situ . "Where this occurred, the tree trunks and
remnant limbs are re -sprouting leaves. Even those breadfruit trees that
were overturned but which retained some large roots underground are re-
growing leaves.

In terms of the most important tree types, the Pandanus suffered most
destruction, up to an estimated 9Q°jo of these trees being killed on most
of the islet except along the lagoon shore where low young trees suffered
less damage. The coconut trees at the south end of the islet between
the large mangrove depression and the shore suffered up to two -thirds loss.
North of the large mangrove depression about half of the coconut trees
were toppled. A large grove of large Pandanus occupied the area west of
the northern third of the large mangrove depression. Almost all had their
crowns and limbs snapped off. Further damage had been inflicted in this
area by uncontrolled burning of the fallen fronds and trees. This burn-
ing also affected coconut trees still living and some young coconut sprouts,

The mangrove and Pemphis trees fringing the southern end of the man-
grove depression appear little damaged by the violent wind. Bananas blown
over and killed in the northeast quarter of the islet have re -sprouted
young plants from their roots.

Salt water from the oceans ide during high tide probably infiltrated
the mangrove depression, because the land area west of the depression is
made up of boulders up to 8-10 inches in diameter and probably allows
relatively free water movement through it.

"Where the small. -boat from our schooner landed, about 350 feet from
the southeast bend of the islet, two large Cal ophvllum trees and one
large Hernandia sonora tree remain growing on the strand, having re-
sprouted leaves from the branches and trunks.

In conclusion, it appears that of all those islets examined by the
writer, Majurirek escaped with the least damage to its soil and economic
plants .

-37-

IV. ISLAND STRUCTURES AND THEIR MODIFICATION
Edwin D. McKee

Development of islet strata

The peripheral reef of Jaluit Atoll, like that of other atolls,
is composed of rigid, wave -resistant skeletons of corals and coralline
algae, with clastic particles or unbroken shells and skeletons of ben-
thonic organisms partly or entirely filling cracks and interstices.
In contrast, rocks that rest upon these reefs and that normally form
the islets rising above them are very different structurally and textur-
ally. Such rocks consist entirely of accumulations of detrital materials,
ranging from sand to boulder size, which are cemented to varying degree.
These rocks may or may not exhibit well-developed stratification. Bedding
is poorly defined and inconspicuous where coarse material has been laid
down in broad sheets or as mounds; it is prominent and in the form of
cross -stratification where the normal sorting processes of a beach have
been responsible for its development.

The forming of islands upon the peripheral reefs of atolls generally
is attributed to tie accumulation of detrital debris, at a particular
stand of sea level, following initial development of a surface irregular-
ity or nucleus for concentration. Should sea level rise suddenly and
appreciably, a probable result would be rapid upward growth of reef-
forming organisms so that even the former island area might be covered
with the new reef rock; should sea level go down the island doubtless
would be destroyed by subaerial processes of erosion. With a relatively
constant position of sea level, however, an island may be expected to
develop, within certain limits, as a result of geological processes
operating under two types of conditions: (l) the normal, day by day
processes of deposition and erosion resulting from waves, tides, long-
shore currents and other regular controls; (2) the occasional great
storms which act violently and abruptly modify the environment.

To interpret correctly the history of any particular islet on an
atoll, the processes operating under each of the two conditions cited
above must be understood and appraised and criteria must be established
for recognizing the deposits formed in each instance. Clearly, most
islets are formed of deposits representing both normal and storm condi-
tions, but the proportions attributed to each on any particular islet
vary widely.

In general, the deposits of normal sediments on an islet consist of
sand and small gravel with good sorting and well-developed cross -strati-
fication. Constant reworking by waves and tides tends to remove the very
fine materials (below sand size) and to separate fine gravel and sand
into distinct layers. Because permanent accumulation of sediments is
largely in the lee of the islands, such sediments continuously contribute
to a leeward extension of beach deposits and therefore islets normally
build in that direction.

-38-

Islet deposits developed during major storms, in contrast to those
formed in normal times, consist dominantly of gravel, including much of
boulder dimensions, that appears to be the product of mass or collective
movement. They form ridges along the windward shores and sheet or
blanket deposits across large parts of islet interiors. They may also
form temporary ridges out on the reef flat. In general, these deposits
are characterized by relatively poor sorting and rude stratification,
but commonly by fair to good imbrication among flat gravels. Removal of
sand-size and smaller particles through winnowing action is normal.

The past history of certain islets on Jaluit Atoll can be deduced in
part through examination of sections both in natural exposures and in man-
made wells and trenches. On the islet of Jaluit, at Jabor, for instance,
exposures in a section (Figs. 14, 15B) across the northeastern part,
immediately southwest of the inhabited area, show consolidated, cross -
stratified lime sandstone and lime gravel, with laminae dipping lagoon-
ward, only 350 feet from the present seaward margin of the islet as well
as near the present lagoon margin. These once -buried remnants indicate
the extent to which beach sands have migrated across the reef in this
area during early history of the islet.

Also on Jabor, but in a narrow section about a mile farther south-
west, a trench dug across the land almost to low tide level illustrates
that here, on the other hand, little or no beach sand development is
represented (Fig. 15A). This section shows that above typical reef rock
in the bottom is a 3-foot layer of brown, well cemented conglomerate,
apparently formed under storm conditions during an early stage in the
development of this islet. White, poorly consolidated but otherwise
similar gravel above apparently had a similar origin at some later date.
Thus, in this part of the islet there is no evidence of rocks having been
formed by the normal beach accumulation of fine sediments.

Studies on Mejatto Islet illustrate variations during early stages
of development in relative contributions of the two types of deposits
(normal and storm) similar to those described from Jabor (Figs. 14, 15C-D)
The transport of materials towards and into the lagoon is evident from a
comparison (cf . Fig. 16) of aerial photographs made prior to OPHELIA (in
19M) and afterwards (in 1958).

Modifications of islet strata resulting from typhoon

A principal objective of the present study has been to determine and
record the effects of Typhoon OPHELIA on the geomorphic and structural
features of islets on Jaluit Atoll. This has been accomplished by
examining in detail, measuring, and plotting in cross -section available
data for two islets -- Jabor and Mejatto -- known to have been especially
hard hit and awash during the storm. Effects of the typhoon on these
islets include both accretion and removal of material and an attempt is
made to indicate the distribution and extent of these changes.

Sedimentary deposits, adding to the bulk of Jabor and Mejatto Islets
and attributed to Typhoon OPHELIA (possibly also, in part, to the storms
of 1957) consist of very slightly weathered or unweathered gravels ranging

-39-

from pebble to boulder size with very little interstitial sand or other
fine particles. They consist in part of material torn loose from the
reef front. * Such fresh gravels are readily recognized by color, being
uniformly white, in contrast to older gravels that are gray or brown
either as a result of algal covering or of weathering in a soil zone.
Imbrication is commonly developed among flat gravels, with surfaces dip-
ping in the direction from which the storm waters advanced.

Based upon their geomorphic position, gravel accretions of the
typhoon may be divided into three classes. These are (l) gravel tracts
that locally form bars on the seaward parts of the reef, (2) shore
ridges, referred to as ramparts by many geologists, and (3) gravel sheets
or blanket deposits.

Gravel tracts were especially well developed on the reef flat sea-
ward of Jabor Islet (Fig. 15A-B, Pl.I-a, -b), where for most of its length
they formed a ridge 8 feet high and ^5 to 60 feet wide; they were less
well developed seaward of Mejatto Islet. In both places they contained
abundant blocks and boulders from one to five feet in diameter, many of
which were recently derived from the reef front as shown by their fresh,
uneroded surfaces and by the types of coral represented. They had been
transported landward as shown by sections across the ridge near Jabor
where conspicuous imbrication of large slabs dipping seaward, constitutes
the principal structure. At the time of examination, three months after
Typhoon OPHELIA, gravel in these tracts had already migrated toward the
islet a considerable distance, according to observations of Mackenzie
and others who have been on the ground during that interval, and there
seems little reason to doubt that normal wave processes will eventually
carry them further back and add them to the seaward deposits of the islet.

Shore ridges, as exhibited on the seaward sides of Jabor and Mejatto
Islets, are in all essential respects, except location, like the gravel
ridges on the reef. They represent an ultimate in accumulation and
piling up of coarse debris. They rise higher and contain larger boulders
than other geomorphic forms on the islets and indicate the maximum storm
concentration along the islet front. Structurally also they appear
similar to the gravel ridges or the reef and probably are enlarged by
material from these when landward migration has continued sufficiently.

The most significant additions, quantitatively, to the islets during
Typhoon OPHELIA, are the blanket deposits of gravel, here termed gravel
sheets. These extend as thin layers of white, little -weathered gravel
across large parts of those islets that were inundated by storm waters
and they appear to have been spread out and deposited in the manner of
river flood or glacial outwash plains. Examples on Mejatto Islet (Fig.
16, 17) begin on the seaward side immediately lagoonward of the shore
ridge or of scour channels and plunge holes as layers of loose gravel
a few inches thick and in places they extend two -thirds or three -fourths
of the distance across the islet. They end abruptly, forming a ledge or
nearly vertical drop of two or three feet along a sinuous front.

* This also is Banner's conclusion, see p. 16.

-1*0-

TexturaHy they are distinctive because of the absence of sand or other
fine sediment as matrix. Structurally they form a single bed or layer,
but commonly show imbrication of flat slabs within.

Gravel sheets spread over the islets contain particles that vary
considerably in size from place to place as shown on Mejatto and Jabor
but, in general, the particles in these sheets are considerably finer
than gravels of the shore ridges and beach tracts. The gravel sheet
appears to have been derived from at least three sources: (l) The outer
reef area; (2) earlier shore ridges; and (3) reworking and redistribution
of gravel of older sheets, with a winnowing away of soils and fine
materials. It was not possible during the present study to determine
the relative contributions from each of these sources. A significant
observation, however, is that enough gravel was introduced from outside
the islet in most parts of the sheet to raise appreciably the general
island level in those places and to leave a new stratum of gravel as a
record.

Although a considerable amount of sediment, nearly all coarse, was
deposited on islets by the floodwaters developed during Typhoon OPHELIA,
notable erosion also resulted from these waters. Evidence of such
erosion is especially conspicuous in areas on the islets that apparently
were occupied by relatively weak sediment adjacent to resistant surfaces.
On both Jabor and Mejatto Islets, scour trenches several feet deep were
cut into unconsolidated sand deposits landward from and parallel to beds
of resistant beach rock that dip toward the sea (Fig. 17) • On Mejatto
many plunge holes were developed, one of them six feet deep, in weak
deposits of sand to the lee of areas tightly bound by the root systems
of trees (Fig. 17A-B). Thus, with the advance of water from seaward,
a selective scouring developed in unprotected areas southwest of obstruc-
tions on the seaward sides of the islets.

Erosion also was considerable in areas bordering the lagoon shores
of islets, especially between the margins of newly formed gravel sheets
and resistant beach rock of the lagoon edge. In such areas water
apparently concentrated in channels to scour out large plunge holes
that have subsequently formed tidal pools (Fig. 15D).

A very large amount of fine sediment, especially of sand size, must
have been removed from the islets of Jabor and Mejatto by flood waters of
Typhoon OPHELIA. These fine sediments were winnowed out of the sandy
gravel of the island and were largely stripped from former sand areas.
At present the only significant sand areas exposed on these islets are
in the bottoms and sides of deep scour channels and undercut areas around
trees and beach rock. Some of the large amount of sand that apparently
was once present, judging from remnants, now forms bars that extend out
into the lagoon at various places; some of it constitutes submarine off-
shore bars (Fig. lh) formed by waves. The great bulk, however, presum-
ably has been carried into the lagoon whose floor is now considered to
have been raised appreciably.

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SECTIONS ACROSS JALUIT AND MEJATTO ISLETS

FIGURE 15

Lagoon

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Island surface

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I mile from north end

C. SW-NE Profile, Jaluit Islet

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D. SW-NE Profile, Mejatto Islet

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SCOUR CHANNELS AND GRAVEL DEPOSITS FORMED BY
TYPHOON OPHELIA ON JALUIT AND MEJATTO ISLETS

a. Beach rock g. Scour pit or scour trench from typhoon

b. Grovel shore ridge h. Grovel sheet from typhoon

c. Debris, mostly logs, from typhoon i Beds of conglomerate

d. Roots of coconut tree j Sandstone, former beach

e. Unconsolidated sand k Reef flot

f. Weathered grovel, unconsolidated ^ Direction of water movement

■41-

V. REMOVAL OF FINE SEDIMENTS FROM ISLETS
Edwin D. McKee

Sand and soil are nearly absent on Jabor and Mejatto Islets, both of
which were awash during Typhoon OPHELIA. That such sediments formerly
constituted significant parts of the surfaces of these islets is indicated
by the prevalence of sand and soil on other islets, e.g. Pinlep and
Majurirek, which were not flooded, and on the unflooded northern end of
Mejatto Islet. Not only has sand that presumably once formed beaches
along these islets largely been removed, but also sand and soil appear to
be thoroughly winnowed out from among the cobbles and pebbles that now
form a gravel sheet across much of these islets.

The destination of fine materials removed from the islets by storm
waves has been determined by investigations of two types. First, a study
has been made of sediments from the lagoon shore outward to determine the
present position of various size -grades of material. Second, a compari-
son has been made of offshore geomorphic features of 19^4 with those of
1958 through a comparison of aerial photographs.

The lagoon area off Jabor Islet was selected for examination of
bottom sediments because it represents a place in which storm intensity
and islet flooding had reached a maximum. Analyses of samples at 100-
to 200 -foot intervals from the shore outward and from depths down to 60
feet were made (Fig. 1^). These show only coral gravel from the shore
line outward 180 feet, poorly sorted lime -sand between 180 and 1000 feet,
and an accumulation of leaf -like and branch-like coral fragments
( Montipora sp. and Acropora sp.) beyond 1000 feet. This distribution is
attributed to Typhoon OPHELIA. The lagoon beach with its lack of sand
is in contrast with lagoon beaches developed by normal wave and tidal
action. Poor sorting of the offshore sands and a lack of progressive
decrease in median size with depths and distance outward suggest rapid
deposition with consequent mixing. In those respects they differ con-
siderably from offshore sediments reported from Kapingamarangi Atoll
formed under conditions of normal sedimentation( McKee, Chronic, and
Leopold, 1959, figures 5, 7, 8, and 9).

Additional features of the lagoon floor off Jabor Islet attributed
to Typhoon OPHELIA are an offshore sand bar or ridge, parallel to the
shore at 400 feet out, and a large accumulation of Pandanus trees from
the land that rest on tie sand floor at the 50-foot level, immediately
beyond a steep drop-off 600 feet from shore (Fig. Ik).* Thus the storm
has left a record offshore consisting of poorly sorted fine sediments
and land-derived materials which, if buried and preserved, will appear
very different from the normal offshore deposits.

* See Banner's remarks, pp. 77-78.

-1+2-

Pinlep and Majurirek Islets, where the typhoon effects were great
hut where flooding of the land did not develop as on Jabor, were also
studied from the standpoint of lagoon sediments. Relatively little fine
sediment was removed from these islets. Nevertheless, the offshore sands
are poorly sorted (figure 18) as on Jabor, and seem to indi-

cate a considerable amount of mixing as far out as samples were taken,
600 to 700 feet, and at depths as great as 15 to 25 feet. In contrast,
lagoon beaches on these islets were formed of sand, analyses of which show
good to fair sorting similar to that of beaches developed under normal
conditions of reworking by waves and tides.

Constituents of offshore sand in the Jaluit Lagoon are shown by
sample counts to consist largely of broken and worn pieces of coral,
although mollusk shell fragments are also very common in all size grades.
The tests of foraminifers, relatively uniform in size, make up more than
50 percent of the particles in the coarse -grain size, but are scarce in
other size grades. Other contributions, including sea urchin spines
and sections of Halimeda , are quantitatively unimportant. Comparison of
these sediments with those accumulated at Kapingamarangi Atoll in similar
locations but under normal conditions of waves and currents, suggest that
the proportionately smaller amount of foraminifera in the very near-shore
waters and their correspondingly greater numbers far out from shore at
Jaluit are direct results of redistribution by the typhoon (McKee, Chronic,
and Leopold, 1959)- The relatively larger amount of coral debris may
also be a result.

Studies of bottom sediments on seaward sides of islets on Jaluit
Atoll were attempted for comparative purposes. On Jabor and Mejatto
Islets sand was absent, probably having been removed by the storm waters
that swept from these reef flats entirely across the islets. On Pinlep
and Majurirek Islets, where storm effects were less intense, fine sediment
of the reef flat was poorly sorted and relatively coarse, median diameters
being greater than sand size (figure .18). The sediment was

composed largely of coral fragments, contained some broken mollusk shells
and Halimeda segments, but no foraminifers. Apparently most of the fine
sand, if formerly present, had been removed.

Sand beaches are at present non-existent along much of the lagoon
side of Jabor and Mejatto Islets. Aerial photographs taken since Typhoon
OPHELIA reveal that a considerable area formerly occupied by beaches on
these islets is now scoured to reef rock surface and sand deposits cur-
rently form loops, or bars in the offshore waters, each bar appearing as
a half circle, convex outward. This pattern is especially well developed
and forms a conspicuous feature along the middle part of Mejatto Islet
(Fig. 16). Gentle lagoonward slopes and steeper shoreward sides on these
bars, as seen in the photographs, are believed to result from gradual
reworking of the sand masses by incoming waves off the lagoon.

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VI. GROUND WATER

Edwin D. McKee

Although no studies of ground water had "been made on the islets of
Jaluit Atoll prior to the coming of Typhoon OPHELIA, dug wells have for
many years furnished potable water, so fresh water lenses may he assumed
to have existed on all hut the very small islets. The quality of this
water probably was similar, in general, to that reported from fresh water
lenses on other Pacific limestone islands. Storm waves of the typhoon,
however, submerged many of the islets, so their supply of ground water was
locally contaminated and its composition greatly altered by mixing with
sea water.

Samples of ground water were collected for analysis in May, 1958,
about four months after the storm. These samples were obtained from four
wells in existence prior to the typhoon, three wells dug at the time of
sampling, one scour pool cut by the typhoon, and one mangrove pond (for
location of wells, see Figs. 6, 8, 11, 12, 13). The three test wells and
one of the original wells were on islets known to have been covered by a
sheet of water during the typhoon (Jabor and Mejatto); the other three
old wells were on islets not inundated (Pinlep, Majurirek, Kinajon) and
their waters apparently were relatively little changed as a result of
the storm.

Temperature and pH readings were taken at each of the wells examined
(Table III). Temperatures ranged from 82° F. to 87 F- These were read
near the middle of the day and probably are relatively high because all
of the wells were in the open, unprotected from the sun, as a result of
typhoon destruction of surrounding trees. Well waters ranged from about
pH 6.0 to pH 7-0, all of the higher figures representing wells on islets
known to have been inundated by typhoon -driven sea water.

TABLE

III.

--Readings

of

PH

and

temperature

for

well water

Well

description

PH

Temperature*

Majurirek 6.0 86

Pinlep 6.5 83

Mejatto well #1 7-0 85

Mejatto well //2 7-0 87

Jabor well #2 7-0 82

* degrees Fahrenheit

Hardness of water (Table IV) in the three samples from islets not
inundated by storm waves is less than 500 parts per million; in all others
it is greater than 1200 ppm, apparently the result of contamination by
sea water. Thus, low calcium and low magnesium in well waters of Pinlep,
Majurirek and Kinajon islets probably represent amounts normal for fresh
water on these islets; water of similar composition is reported from

fresh water lenses in the northern Marshall Islands (Arnow, 195 2 *-, p. 7)
and on Kapingamarangi Atoll (McKee, 1958 > P« 267). The amount of calcium
and magnesium in such waters, higher than in average fresh water streams
and lakes, results from solution of limestone and lime sand of the islets.

Well water from Jahor and Mejatto Islets (Table IV ) which were covered
by sea water during the typhoon are much higher in both calcium (over 200
ppm) and magnesium (over 170 ppm) than water from the islets cited above
that were not inundated. Furthermore, the amount of magnesium in the
Jabor -Mejatto samples is essentially equal to or greater than the amount
of calcium, a result of contamination, since normal sea water has propor-
tionately more magnesium than calcium, whereas most fresh waters are the
reverse .

The extent of contamination by sea water is illustrated by analyses
of sulfate (S01j.) and chloride (CI) for well water from Jabor and Mejatto
Islets (Table IV). Both of these islets were covered by ocean water
during the typhoon, but apparently the lens on Mejatto with a combined
sulfate and chloride content ranging from 10,000 to 15,000 ppm was
contaminated more than that on Jabor where it ranges from ^,000 to 5,000
ppm. It is instructive to compare these figures with the 250 ppm
sulfate and 250 ppm chloride recommended by the U. S. Public Health
Service as the upper limit for water used in normal domestic consumption.

A summary of available data on the ground water resources of Jaluit
Atoll after Typhoon OPHELIA is as follows. The fresh water lenses on
those islets not covered by storm waters appear to be normal for Pacific
atolls and probably were little or not affected by the typhoon. The
fresh water lens on Jabor and that on Mejatto, judged by samples from
two wells on each, show a sulfate -chloride content far too high for
drinking purposes and will require a considerable period of dilution by
rainwater to again become potable. How long a period of "freshening"
will be needed with present Annual precipitation of about 200 inches,
is not known, but samples from the four wells in question, collected
and analyzed periodically during the coming year should give signifi-
cant information.

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-47-

VII. SOILS
F. R. Foster g

Following Stone (1951, 1953) and Fosberg (195M, "the principal soils
on Jaluit Atoll fall into five categories: (1) Shioya Series, (2) Arno
Atoll Series, (3) Jemo Series, (k) mangrove peat, and (5) stony and very
stony complex.

The Shioya soils are gray-brown slightly altered lime -sands with
varying amounts of gravel, the A-horizon, colored slightly by humus,
varying in thickness, depending on the time elapsed since the last dis-
turbance and type of vegetation. The B-horizon is lacking and the C-
horizon is lime sand, not much altered, scarcely distinguishable from
beach materials. This soil tends to be peripheral on the islets but may
also be found in the in triors .

The Arno Atoll soils have a black or very dark gray A-horizon from
1 to several dm. in thickness. The organic content is high. The B-hori-
zon, again, is lacking, and the C -horizon is similar to that of the Shioya
with a gradual transition from the A. This series is found generally in
the interiors of islets but may extend almost or quite to the lagoon
beach. This soil is unquestionably much older than the Shioya.

The Jemo series (Fosberg 195*0 has an A-horizon of pure humus
varying in thickness up to a dm. or rarely more. Usually it has a
consolidated B-horizon of highly phosphatic material of varying thick-
ness. This lies on a C-horizon similar to that of the two foregoing
series. Three areas of this series were found during the present survey,
none of them typical. On Lijeron Islet under the Pisonia trees the A-
horizon is well developed but somewhat mixed with lime -sand. The B-
horizon is only slightly and very locally developed. On Imroj Islet the
A-horizon is lacking and the B is eroded and cracked into a bccdder-field
(EL. VIII -d). It is on the extreme northwest end of the islet, just
south of a small mangrove depression. On Kinajon Islet the A-horizon is
lacking in parts, present but rather thin elsewhere. Here the Jemo series
occupies slightly high ground inside a roughly crescent-shaped group of
mangrove depressions near the outer part of the islet. These soils are
of great importance because of their phosphatic B-horizons.

The mangrove peats are soft to firm, red to black, purely organic
accumulations found especially around mangrove depressions.

The stony and very stony complex is the undifferentiated gravel of
varied sizes found especially in peripheral ridges (often termed boulder
ridges or boulder ramparts), sometimes in wider areas. It may be very
loose and porous, or may contain fine material, often highly organic,
between the stones.

Time was not available for mapping these types, nor for mapping the
areas of them that were either buried or stripped away by the typhoon.
This damage was not very significant on those islets or parts of islets
which were not swept over by waves, especially the islets on the south

-1*8-

and west reefs, and presumably in the extreme north of the atoll. On the
east reef islets, judging from work on the ground on four islets and
aerial inspection of the rest, considerable areas of stony and very stony
complex were stripped off, usually exposing either more of the same or
beds of poorly consolidated conglomerate (Pis. Il-a, V-b). Stripping was
rather general along the seaward sides of most of the islets. This rocky
material, probably including some freshly thrown up from outside the reef,
was mostly spread inland, covering an estimated third or fourth of the
total land area of these islets with a gravel sheet that will have to be
classified with the stony and very stony complex (Pis. Ill, VII -b, IX-d,
X-b). The buried soils here, at least where examined, were largely Arno
Atoll, some Shioya. Lagoonward from the usually abrupt edges of this
gravel sheet (PI. Ill -a, ~b) the Arno Atoll and Shioya soils are in places
covered by a few cm. of lime -sand. On these same islets small areas,
totaling a considerable amount, were scoured by the waves, removing the
A- and often part of the C -horizon.

It is hard to estimate the agricultural significance of this
destruction of soils. Unquestionably, where the surface soils have
been removed there is a great decrease in fertility. To replace the
humus lost from both the Arno Atoll and stony and very stony areas
would require fallowing under vegetation for a long time. Even to bring
about the slight humus accumulation characteristic of the Shioya soils
will require a considerable fallow period. Analyses of similar soils
from other atolls show that a large part of the mineral nutrients is
concentrated in the more highly organic layers. Cessation of the common
Marshallese practice of burning trash and brush would greatly hasten the
needed humus accumulation.

The areas stripped down to consolidated material will certainly not
be of any immediate agricultural use. Any vegetation that can be encour-
aged to grow on these areas will be of benefit, both in helping to dis-
integrate the rock and in accumulating wind-blown material and humus.

The areas covered by fresh gravel sheets would not seem to be very
promising for any sort of agriculture. However, if the practice of
planting coconuts in 3 1 x 3' x 3' pits is followed it is probable that
in many places these pits may extend down through the gravel layer into
the buried Arno Atoll or Shioya soils. The overlying material would then
be of no consequence except to make digging more laborious.

The mangrove peat was not noticeably influenced by the typhoon
except that in several places small areas were covered by deposits of
wave-carried gravel (PI. III-c,-d). Usually great quantities of vegetable
trash were dumped into the mangrove depressions by the waves (Pi. V-c).
This will, of course, eventually add to the peat.

An interesting feature was the buried A-horizon, at somewhat less
than 1 m. depth, encountered in a well dug under Dr. McKee's direction
near the center of the northwest end of Mejatto Islet. This apparently
indicates the burial, at some earlier time, of an Arno Atoll soil, perhaps
by a typhoon. The overlying material is a gravel similar to that of the
gravel sheets laid down by the waves of Typhoon OPHELIA.

-49-

Another item of interest is the abundance of pumice fragments
scattered inland wherever the land was inundated. Some of these were
undoubtedly washed out of preexisting gravel ridges and soil layers, but
much of the pumice probably came from the beaches , where much has accumu-
lated, floated from across the sea, especially after the eruption in 1952
of San Benedicto Volcano, off the Mexican Coast (Richards 1958). That
this pumice contributes to the fertility of the soil is indicated by the
proliferation of roots tightly surrounding particles of pumice buried in
atoll soils, observed both on this survey and in the northern Marshalls .
Pounded pumice is used to fertilize gardens and taro pits in various
atoll groups.

The Germans aid Japanese had brought large quantities of volcanic
soil from Ponape and spread it over certain areas on Jabor. One of these
patches has now settled so that it is covered by salt water at the
highest tides. Although all of the imported soil was inundated by sea
water during the typhoon, it seems mostly still there and is now
supporting a rank growtn of weeds.

The overall consequences of the typhoon are unquestionably a loss in
productive soils. However, this may be mitigated to some extent if the
trash (PI. VI -d) strewn over the islets by the typhoon and that accumulated
under normal circumstances are allowed to rot, rather than being burned
as has already started in several places.

-51-

VIII. FLORA AND VEGETATION
F. R. Foster g

The indigenous flora of Jaluit Atoll is an enriched strand flora,
typical of that of wetter atolls in the west central Pacific. In
addition to most of the ordinary widely distributed strictly strand species
that are to be expected in tropical maritime situations, wet sheltered
forest sites have permitted the establishment of certain more mesophytic
species not ordi n arily found on strands. Peperomia ponapensis , Procris
pedunculata , and Vittaria elongata are examples of these. The Marshallese
made their contribution to the flora by bringing in such economic plants
as the breadfruit, the taros, at least some kinds of pandanus, the coco-
nut and others as well as a few weeds. Since the arrival of the first
Europeans many weeds, some new food plants, and an array of ornamentals
have been introduced, either deliberately or accidentally. The only
peculiarity of the Jaluit flora is the presence of an unusually large
number of these exotics resulting from the fact that the atoll was the
site of the German and Japanese administrations and of a short-lived
agricultural experiment station started by the present administration.
A list of the known flora is to be published in another number of the
Atoll Research Bulletin (see also Appendix l).

The islets of Jaluit Atoll, before the typhoon, had mostly been
planted to coconuts and breadfruit. Except for the plantations only a
few important vegetation types were present, and these in small areas.
They were Pemphis forest or thicket, Pisonia forest, mangrove depressions,
taro pits, and fringes of dense scrub along the windward sides of some
islets, outside the plantations. A few open grassy areas represented
abandoned gardens, as on Kinajon Islet and possibly Pinlep Islet.

The plantations (PI. V-a, -b,-c) were either coconut, coconut and
breadfruit, or rarely just breadfruit. The trees were from 15 to 25,
rarely 30 m. tall, closely spaced, usually less than 6 m. apart. A
scattered under story of Pandanus (PI. V-c) up to 5 to 8 m. tall occurred
in most parts, most of the trees being of varieties yielding edible
fruits. Other small trees and shrubs, especially Morinda and Allophylus ,
were present but irregularly distributed, depending on the local produc-
tivity of the land and on the diligence of the plantation owners in
clearing out the undergrowth. A ground cover of grasses, sedges, Wedelia ,
ferns, and other herbs was general. Epiphytic mosses and ferns were
common, especially in denser parts of the plantations.

Around the edges of the plantations, especially on the gravel ridges
on the windward sides of the islets, was usually a narrow zone of scrub
composed of Scaevola sericea , Toumefortia argentea , Guettarda speciosa ,
Termlnalia samoensis , and other woody species. In some very rocky areas,
both in the scrub and in the coconut groves, Fleurya ruderalis , Boerhavia
tetrandra , and Euphorbia chamissonis were common, forming a scattered
ground layer. In a few spots in the coconut plantations near the windward
side were groups of large trees of Barringtonia asiatica. Intsia bijuga
and Ochrosia oppositifolia were also present in small groups.

-52-

Around Tillages, isolated dwellings, and grave yards were a few
species of ornamentals, planted as scattered trees or "bushes, hedges or
borders, or in small gardens. Most of them produced flowers used for
leis or garlands. Especially common were Pseuderanthemum , Plumeria,
Crinum , Acalypha , Zephyranthes , Polys cias , Mirabilis , Catharanthus ,
Asclepias , Gomphrena , and Ocimum . Such food plants as Pandanus (PI. V-a),
bananas, papayas, and squashes, also were very common in the vicinity of
dwellings .

On Jabor, the northern extremity of Jaluit Islet, where both the
Germans and the Japanese had their headquarters, a great many cultivated
exotic species were planted. Volcanic soil was brought from Ponape and
spread in certain spots, making possible gardens with many species not
commonly found cultivated on atolls. Certain weeds also became estab-
lished in Jabor. Several years ago the U. S. Administration started an
agricultural experiment station on Jabor, and more plants were brought in.
Over a hundred species of cultivated plants and several weeds not normally
found on atolls in this part of the world have been reported from Jaluit
by German, Japanese, and later writers. Many of these have not persisted,
but up to the time of Typhoon OPHELIA a substantial number were reported
by Boyd Mackenzie to be growing on Jabor and some had been carried to
other islets of the atoll.

In certain places, either interior depressions or marginal places
where gravel ridges have cut off areas of reef flat, the water table
reaches the surface of the ground. Here coconuts do not thrive well and
other vegetation is found. On Pinlep two such interior depressions have
been converted to taro pits where the giant taro, Cyrtosperma , is the
principal vegetation, along with several weeds characteristic of such
habitats. These are, especially, Echinochloa cr us - galli , Cyperus odoratus ,
and Eleocharis geniculata . There may have been others before the typhoon.
Other such depressions have mangrove vegetation of one sort or another.
Most of the depressions studied have essentially a pure stand of 5ifuguiera
gymnorhiza or Bruguiera with some Pemphis acidula . One had Lumnitzera
littorea . Another had Bruguiera with a dense understory of Hibiscus
tiliaceus . Still another had Hibiscus only.

Along both seaward and lagoon shores are areas of rock flats of lime-
stone conglomerate with little or no soil. Some such areas were bare or
almost so. Others were covered by thickets or scrub forests of Pemphis
acidula . One area of rock flat on the lagoon shore near Sydneytown had,
in 19^6, a sparse stand of a mangrove, Sonneratia alba , almost the
easternmost known occurrence of this species.

On several tiny islets coconuts have never been planted in large
numbers. Two of these, Ribon and Lijeron, have been examined briefly.
The vegetation was largely Pisonia grandis , with Tournefortia , Guettarda,
Intsia , and Terminalia samoensis around the shore ridges and Pemphis on
rock flats In the interior of Ribon is an open area dominated by
Asplenium nidus . Lijeron is the home of large numbers of sea birds,
some of which nest in the trees.

The very small islets, though less disturbed, had a very restricted
flora, as has been observed elsewhere on atolls (cf. Kapingamarangi, ace.

-53-

Niering, 1956)- Of the larger islets the broad ones tend to have a
larger flora than the narrow ones.

The effects of Typhoon OPHELIA, even on the same vegetation type,
or on the same plant, were by no means identical in all localities and
parts of the atoll. In general, the islets on the east side of the atoll
suffered much more damage to their vegetation than those on north, south,
and west. Also, as might have been anticipated, narrow islets or parts
of islets were far more affected than broad parts. This was well illus-
trated on Jaluit Islet, where the narrow parts south of Jabor were in
places completely stripped of vegetation (Pi. V-b). Also on Jaluit Islet
the difference in damage depending on orientation of the islet is well
shown. At the southeast corner of this islet (see Fig. l) the part
running north suffered very severe loss of coconut trees, this continuing
southward to the point. On the leg of the islet running westward from
the southeast point the damage was conspicuously less, the difference at
the time of examination being between a barren expanse of coral with
scattered trees and a solidly green islet. The islets along the south
and west sides and around the north loop of the reef were generally green,
while along the east side only the wider islets were green. This seems
well correlated with the exposure of the eastern side of the atoll to a
combination of strong winds and great waves which swept over the narrower
islets and parts of islets. Some of the broader islets here were only
partly inundated, while on the other sides of the atoll most islets
escaped serious flooding by the salt water.

This combined action of wind and large waves had several effects on
vegetation. Many trees were uprooted, either completely so (Pi. VI -a)
and sometimes swept away, or partly so (PI. VI -b) and remaining in place
and frequently still alive. Some were snapped off (PI. V-d). Branches
were broken or torn off of most of those that remained standing (Pl.VI-c).
Some exotic plants were killed or their above ground parts killed by salt.
In places large scale burial of plants by gravel occurred (Pl-III-a, Vll-b).
Elsewhere the soil with its vegetation was scoured away ( PI. V-b). Many
tree trunks were seen in the lagoon on the shallower slopes along the
east side. Masses of vegetable debris were strewn at random on areas that
were inundated (Pl.VI-d). Some of this seemed to have washed around and
become very worn and battered before it was finally stranded. Enormous
amounts of such debris were washed into some of the mangrove depressions
(Pl.V-c). It was impressive that not only trees but even shrubs and
coconut seedlings were knocked down or dismembered in these areas. How-
ever, no particular evidence of abrasion of bark by wind- or water -driven
sand and gravel was seen. Defoliation, according to reports, was at
least in places complete. Root systems were extensively exposed (Pl.II-c,
-d, VII -a).

On parts of the wider islets of the east reef and on the islets on
the other sides most or all of the damage to vegetation was by wind. Here
the ground vegetation was little hurt. The trees and larger shrubs, how-
ever, were seriously damaged, locally almost all trees being uprooted or
broken, usually a substantial proportion even in the less affected areas.
In some places, as on Majurirek (Elizabeth) and Iraroj, trees had fallen
in at least three main directions (Pl.VII-c). More usually they were
predominantly pointing in one direction. The direction of fall of the

-54-

trees, and its significance in terms of the storm, have been discussed
above by Blumenstock and Wiens. Particular mention may be made of man-
grove svamps and Pemphis thickets. Although the trees in these were in
places uprooted, more often they -were still standing but with their upper
parts or branches dead (pl.IV-d, VTII-c). A significant fact emerging
from the observations on these islets that were not covered by salt water
is that very serious damage to vegetation may result from wind alone
(Pl.VII-d, VIII-a,-b).

Impressions gained of the comparative resistance to wind of different
tree species are not very clear, as conditions varied so much locally. No
kind completely escaped uprooting and breaking, but Pemphis , Cordia , Calo -
phyllum , and Casuarina* perhaps stood up best, except for Bruguiera , which
occurred in dense stands in low spots, where there was some protection.
Pandanus ( Pl.VII-d, X-c), breadfruit, <and Terminalia catappa perhaps fared
worst. Very few breadfruit trees with trunks 3° cm. or more in diameter
remain standing, and the smaller ones which do remain have most of their
branches torn off ( PI. VI -a, VIII -a, -b). Where inundated by salt water,
breadfruit trees were killed or almost so. Of the larger shrubs Terminalia
samoensis fared by far the best, suffering little damage. Small Pemphis
bushes in some places escaped completely; others were snapped off (PI. IX -a).
The reactions of individual species are discussed in detail later on.

Smaller plants suffered perhaps less than others on the islets that
were not inundated, but were enormously reduced in numbers on the ones
swept by waves.

Recovery was well under way at the time of the survey, little over
3? months after the typhoon. Most of the dismembered and defoliated
trees were putting out an abundance of leafy sprouts (Pl.VTII-b, -c).
This was not true of Pandanus , which was scarcely sprouting at all (PI. VII
-d). In the badly hit areas of the east reef most of the breadfruit
trees were either dead or very slow in showing signs of recovery, possibly
because of the salt water. Elsewhere they were sprouting actively. Many
of the trees of all kinds that were completely down but had some roots
still in the ground were still growing, some even flowering. Abundant
seedlings were seen of Tournefortia , Scaevola, Guettarda , Morinda , and,
very locally, Barringtonia , and Pandanus . Many of the herbaceous plants
had come up from seed after the typhoon in great profusion in favorable
habitats, some of them doubtless greatly increasing their numbers as a
result of the thinning of the forest and the consequent lessened shade.

Recovery of individual species is discussed below. In general,
native atoll plants and those long cultivated on atolls show active
recuperative powers. Some of the planted species came back well enough.
Others were doubtless lost. It is difficult to say what, if any, species
were completely eliminated, as only a part of the atoll was examined.
In addition to such planted things as several palms, two native mangroves,
Sonneratia alba and Lumnitzera littorea, may have disappeared. They were

But see Wiens, p. 27. — F.R.F.

-55-

known on Jaluit Islet only, from one small colony each, and these places
were examined without rinding a trace of the plants. Of course they
may still exist on other islets which have not been explored botanically.

Native agriculture and subsistence plants were badly hit, especially
Pandanus (Pi. VII -d), breadfruit (Pi. VI -a, VIII -a, -b), and coconut (PI.
IX-c, -d), but no other food plants of consequence were more than tempo-
rarily damaged. Banana, shoots and papaya seedlings were coming up in
abundance. Squash were growing well. Ihe taro pits were not seriously
hurt (Pi. IX -b). These matters will be considered more in detail in
the chapter on economic consequences.

-57-

IX. TYPHOON EFFECTS ON INDIVIDUAL SPECIES OF PLANTS

F. R. Fosberg

Observations were made on the effects of the typhoon on many individ-
ual species and their recovery. These are indicated in the following
systematic list of species. The list includes all plants which were
known or thought to be present on the atoll in 19^6 or thereafter.
Various species reported earlier but of which there are no recent records
are omitted. Information has been supplied by Prof. Harold St. John and
by Boyd Mackenzie, as well as taken from records gathered by the writer
on a visit in 19b6 and in the present survey. Names have been adjusted
to correspond with those considered correct at the present time.

Asplenium nidus - -Very frequent locally, terrestrial and epiphytic.
Reduced in numbers as trees on which it was growing were swept
away or as ground was covered by gravel, but still very common
except where islets were seriously swept by waves.

Nephrolepis acutifolia — Common locally, epiphytic, especially in and
around mangrove depressions. Reduced in numbers where trees on
which it was growing were swept away and individual clumps killed
or seriously injured by salt or wind, but generally recovering,
still common in protected places.

Nephrolepis hir sutula - -Common locally. No injury noted but doubtless
reduced or eliminated where islets were seriously swept by salt
water.

Polypodium s colopendr ia - -Generally very common, terrestrial and on
bases and trunks of trees; still so except where islets were
swept by waves. Buried by gravel in places, but otherwise no
injury noted; doubtless reduced in numbers where host trees were
swept away.

Pteris tripartita - -Occasional and very local in protected places;
terrestrial. No injury noted but doubtless reduced in numbers
by destruction of habitats.

Vittaria elongata - -Rare , epiphytic. No injury noted except that some
clumps may have suffered from exposure to sun or salt.

Cycas circinalis — Planted in Jabor only, rare. Leaves seriously
battered, one plant, at least, uprooted.

Pandanus tectorius --One of the commonest trees generally, forming part
of the vegetation on the seaward margins of plantations and the
principal component of the understory. Trees generally very
seriously battered, some uprooted, many more broken off between
stilt roots and first branches, or with most of the branches
broken off. Branches either broken in leafless part or torn
from trunk. Sometimes a few tufts of frayed green leaves left

-58-

on trees, especially on those in more sheltered places. Even
the trees otherwise in fair condition in least affected areas
had leaves broken. No sprouting seen where breaks occurred below
the leafy portions of branches or in trunks. The few sprouts
noted were from the soft leafy parts of branches. Apparently
the lower parts of branches, trunks, or roots have no capacity
for sprouting. Young plants below 1.5 m. tall on the areas not
swept by waves not particularly injured.

Thalassia hemprichii --In elongate patches on lagoon bottom in about
1 m. of water. No effects noted.

Cenchrus e china tus — Common locally. Absent from many places swept
bare by salt water in situation where it would be expected to
be abundant.

Cynodon dactylon- -Scarcely seen, not known if it was common or not
before typhoon; no obvious effects seen.

Digitaria pruriens var. microbachne — Widely distributed but local, not

abundant. No effects noted, but some habitats undoubtedly rendered
less favorable by removal of soil and flooding by salt water.

Echinochloa crus - galli --This species seen only in taro pits, where it
forms large masses No effect noted.

Eleusine indie a — Very common. No obvious effects; but doubtless some
habitats made less favorable and others more favorable, resulting
in elimination where soil was removed or buried and greater abun-
dance where trees were thinned and soil only moderately disturbed.

Eragrostis amabilis - -Very common. No effects noted that might not have
resulted from mere dry weather.

Lepturus repens - -Very general, locally abundant. In places undoubtedly
buried by gravel sheets; in many places removed by wave erosion;
otherwise no effects noted. New open habitats will doubtless
result in increase of this species in the near future.

Paspalum con j ugatum - -Only seen on Pinlep Islet, where it was very common.
No effects noted, but thinning out of coconuts may well encourage
this species, which was luxuriant in areas on Pinlep where many
trees were knocked down.

Paspalum distichum — Found in brackish depressions. No effects noted,
but scour pits may become habitats for this species.

Sorghum bicolor --Very rare, on Jabor only. No effects noted, plant
very rarely persisting.

Thuarea involuta - -Abundant , generally distributed. Undoubtedly buried
in large areas covered by gravel sheet and removed in seriously
eroded areas. Otherwise no effects noted except some browning of
leaves, possibly by salt water.

-59-

Cyperue compressus — Local, in Jabor only. Inundated; no effects noted.
These plants possibly grew from seeds since the typhoon.

Cyperus javanicus — Local, in low or wet places. No effects noted, but
possibly some habitats buried by gravel or eroded away. Scour
pits and channels may eventually become new habitats for this species.

Cyperus kyllingia — Occasional, only seen on Jabor. No effects noted
except some browning of leaves and dwarfing of plants in areas
flooded by salt water.

Cyperus odor atus --Seen only in taro pits. No effects noted.

Cyperus rotundus — Local, in Jabor village only. No effects noted

except that only young shoots were seen. The tubers undoubtedly
survived the inundation by salt water.

Eleocharis geniculata — Seen only on mud in taro pits. No effects noted.

Fimbristylis cymos a--Very general, especially in open places, locally
abundant. Some stands of this species doubtless buried by gravel
sheets, others eroded away by waves; gravel sheets doubtless will
afford extensive rew habitats. No effects noted in areas not
affected by waves.

Cocos nucifera — Planted over entire atoll (PI. IV -a, -b,-c). These

trees showed the most conspicuous damage of all, because of their
size and abundance. Thousands of trees were either uprooted or
snapped off part way up the trunk (Pls»II-c, -d,V-d,VT-a, -b, -c, VTI,
VIII-a,IX-c, -d,X-a) . On the islets along the east reef of the
atoll the majority of coconut trees are down; on some islets
almost all. On the south reef, west reef, and at the northern
end many are down, but there are still a majority standing in
most places. The nuts, of course, are stripped from most of
those left standing. However, on the less damaged islets there
are occasional trees with nuts in drinking condition and some
trees are flowering. A surprising thing was the extent to which
young palms, with scarcely any trunk, were flattened out, especial-
ly where hit by waves; here more were down than standing. Ripe
nuts lying on ground are germinating in great abundance wherever
they have not been picked up.

Elais guineensis — Planted on Jabor. The only tree was destroyed,
apparently by waves.

Pritchardia pacifica - -Planted on Jabor. The only tree was destroyed,
apparently by waves.

Alocasia macrorrhiza --This was common generally on larger islets; seems
not to have been much affected, even where inundated.

Colocasia esculenta --Very rarely noted; seems not to have been much
planted by the Marshal ] ese . No effects noted; not inundated.

-6o-

Cyrtosperma chamissonis — Abundant in taro pits on Pinlep Islet (Pl.IX-b).
The leaves were apparently destroyed by the storm but were sprout-
ing up again. Leaves at time of survey up to 4-5 dm. high; not
inundated.

Epipremnum pinna turn- -"/as common in experiment station grounds. Occasional
plants survived inundation and are growing again.

Scindapsus aureus — Was common in experiment station grounds. Many
plants survived inundation and are growing again.

Xanthosoma sagittifolia — Was occasionally planted around villages.
Some plants, at least, survived inundation.

Rhoeo spathacea — Common on Jabor. Inundated but no effects noted.

Agave sisalana — Seen only in one place on Jabor, young plants only.
Large ones may have been swept away, if there were any.

Cordyline terminalis - -Planted on Jabor; battered by storm and inunda-
tion but recovering.

Sansevieria roxburghiana? — Planted on Jabor; no effects noted.

Crinum asiaticum ? — Common around villages and home sites; survived
inundation; large plants apparently mostly destroyed, smaller
ones not flowering but appear healthy.

Hippeastrum puniceum — Rarely planted about dwellings; no effects noted.

Zephyr anthes rosea — Commonly planted; no effects noted; survived
complete inundation by salt water.

Tacca leontopetaloides - -Generally distributed; doubtless some plants
too deeply buried for recovery and others removed by erosion,
but those in most situations apparently unaffected, even where
inundated by salt water.

Dioscorea sp. — Seen by St. John in 19^6 on Imroj but not found in 1958.

Musa nana — Wot seen with certainty on this survey.

Musa sapientum- -Generally planted; shoots destroyed by storm but

rhizomes apparently unaffected, even by inundation by salt water,
as healthy shoots, up to half mature size, were very common at
time of survey.

Canna indica ? - -Occasionally planted; shoots apparently destroyed but
tubers unaffected and new shoots appearing.

P eperomia pellucida — Weed on Jabor; plants seen were probably ones
that had grown from seed after typhoon.

-61-

Peperomia ponapensis — After typhoon seen only on Majurirek in protected
area on western end where there was no inundation; no effects noted,
but seen on Imroj in 19k6 and not after typhoon.

Casuarina equisetifolia — Planted on Jabor, trees reaching 10 m. height,
a few trees uprooted, most of those standing had lost most of
their branches and had been pretty well stripped of photosynthetic
branchlets, but were vigorously sprouting new branchlets from
trunk and remaining limbs, apparently unaffected by inundation.

Artocarpus altili6 — (impractical to distinguish a. mariannensis in dead
condition but many of living trees were this.) Breadfruit was a
common and important tree on all inhabited islets (Pl.IV-b). It
was very badly damaged by the storm ( Pis. VI -a, VIII -a, -b) . On the
eastern islets that were inundated most trees were uprooted and
some that were still standing were dead probably from the effect
of salt water on the roots. Most of the branches were torn off
the trees left standing in all areas examined. In very few places
were trees of over 3 <3m- diameter at breast height left standing
and these were mostly dead. On the non-inundated islets the
trunks and few remaining branches were sprouting leafy branchlets.
On Majurirek and Pinlep several partly uprooted trees were
observed which had many partly grown fruits in good condition.
It is probable that most of the standing trees on the south and
west islets will make a rather prompt recovery. Seedlings were
noted on many areas which had not been inundated and a few on
lightly inundated areas. Breadfruit trunks were generally not
broken. Either the entire tree was uprooted or branches were
split off, mostly at their bases, and small branches torn off
of larger branches that remained.

Ficus elastica - -Several large trees were growing in Jabor. They
survived the inundation and remain standing, but with most of
the branches torn off and most of leaves damaged.

Ficus tinctoria — One tree seen on Jabor , uprooted but sprouting from
trunk.

Fleurya ruderalis — Common generally in rocky or open places. Doubt-
less mostly destroyed by typhoon in all places where there was
flooding by salt water or exposure to strong wind; but plants
have since come up from seeds in most appropriate habitats.

Pilea microphylla — Naturalized from cultivation. Doubtless destroyed
by typhoon, but on Jabor and Pinlep has come up abundantly from
seed.

Pipturus argenteus — Common in some areas, especially somewhat protected
places. Doubtless many plants destroyed by typhoon but some
sprouting from battered plants and much seedling reproduction.

Procris pedunculata - -Known only from one restricted area on west end of
Majurirek Islet where there was no inundation by salt water. Common
there but not flowering. No effects observed which could easily be
ascribed to typhoon.

-62-

Boerhavia tetrandra — Known only from restricted area on east end of
Majurirek Islet. No effects observed.

Bougainvillea sp. — Planted around villages and in experiment station,
but apparently destroyed by storm except on Kinajon, where two
somewhat defoliated plants remain.

Mirabilis jalap_a- -Planted around villages. No effects noted, but
probably present plants have grown from seed since typhoon.

Pisonia grandis — Common, but only small plants seen in most places. On
Me j at to one small tree still standing. On Ribon and Lijeron this
is the most prominent species. Here some large trees have been
uprooted, others are still standing but with many branches blown
off and much defoliation (Pl.X-d). Almost all fallen trees and
all standing ones sprouting vigorously.

Amaranthus viridis — Common weed, seen only on Jabor and Kinajon, where
it is abundant locally, probably grown from seed since the typhoon.

Celosia argentea — Seen on Imroj in 19^-6, not found on present survey.

Gomphrena globosa — Planted commonly around dwellings even in inundated
areas probably grown from seed since the typhoon.

Portulaca oleracea — Generally common. In areas inundated by salt water
probably growing from seed since typhoon.

Cassytha f i lif ormis - -Common locally, parasitic on other plants. No
effects noted.

Hernandia s onora — Occasional fair sized trees, mostly uprooted but
continuing to grow, leaves on these trees in inundated areas
reduced in size.

Nasturtium s armentosum — Rare weed on Jabor; no effects noted, but may
have come up from seed after inundation.

Kalanchoe pi nnata - -Local on Imroj and Kinajon, no effects noted but
doubtless reduced in numbers on Imroj by burying and erosion.

Albizia lebbek — Planted on Jabor but did not survive inundation by
salt water.

Canavalia microcarp a — Common on less disturbed islets, seedlings seen
on some eroded areas and deposition areas; no effects noted.

Caesalpinia pulcherr ima- -Seen planted on Imroj in 19^6 but not found
during present survey.

Cassia occidentalis --Very local on Jabor, destroyed by storm but
seedlings growing in some places.

-63-

Crotalaria incana — Dominant plant on many open areas on Jabor, plants
grown from seed since inundation are flowering and fruiting
abundantly. Deliberately introduced and spread long before typhoon.

Delonix regia- -Several large trees planted on Jabor; uprooted by typhoon
but still alive, flowering.

Erythrina variegata var. orientalis — One or two large trees planted on
Jabor; inundated, uprooted by typhoon but still alive.

Inocarpus f agif eru s - -Several trees planted on Jabor; inundated , badly
battered and defoliated by typhoon but still alive, sprouting
from trunk.

Intsia bijuga — Seen on several islands but always blown down by typhoon
and sprouting, even in inundated areas.

Leucaena glauca — Abundant on Jabor; survived inundation by salt water,
defoliated and upper parts killed by typhoon, now sprouting
abundantly from roots andlower parts.

Sophora tomentosa - -Seen on Mejatto in 19^6, not found on this survey.

Vigna marina - -Common on all islets; large numbers undoubtedly buried
by gravel and removed by erosion, but in less disturbed places
very abundant, probably greatly increased by opening up of shady
plantations by fall of trees. Seedlings common on newly deposited
gravel .

Citrus aurantifolia — Occasionally planted; in areas inundated by salt
water the trees look half -dead but sprouting from trunk, in other
areas merely somewhat defoliated.

Citrus maxima - -Planted on Jabor but did not survive typhoon.

Citrus sinensis — Planted on Jabor, some plants said to have survived
typhoon, not seen.

Citrus reticulata - -Planted on Jabor but did not survive typhoon.

Acalypha wilkesiana — Planted on Jabor and Pinlep; no effects noted.

Codiaeum variegatum — Planted on Majurirek Islet; no effects noted.

Euphorbia chamissonis — Common on lagoon ridges on Majurirek and Pinlep
Islets; no effects noted.

Euphorbia glomerifera - -Common weed on Jabor; no effects noted.

Euphorbia hirta — Very common in waste places on some inhabited islets;
no effects noted but plants seen could have grown from seed after
typhoon .

Euphorbia pro strata — Local around dwellings; no effects noted.

-64-

Euphorbia pulcherrima — Planted on Jabor but did not survive typhoon.

Phyllanthus amarus - -Abundant veed on Jabor, Kinajon and Pinlep; no
effects noted, but on Jabor could have grown from seed since
inundation by salt water.

Ricinus communis — Planted on Jabor but did not survive typhoon.

Allophylus timorensis — Common on Kinajon, Majurirek and Pinlep; seen
also on Imroj, Jabor and Mejatto in 19^6, not in 1958* Larger
trees on Kinajon uprooted but sprouting; others badly battered
but growing and flowering; not definitely known to have survived
inundation -

Triumfetta procumbens — Common generally, especially in open places,

but not seen on Jabor; no effects noted but doubtless many plants
buried and eroded away; seedlings common.

Hibiscus esculentus — Planted in garden of imported volcanic soil on
Jabor; still growing and fruiting, in spite of inundation by
typhoon and periodic inundation of this garden by highest tides.

Hibiscus mutabilis - -Planted in Jabor but apparently did not survive
typhoon .

Hibiscus tiliaceus — Occasional on inhabited islets. One or two trees
knocked over but sprouting; seen on Imroj in 19^6 but not in 1958.
Abundant in some mangrove depressions but tops usually dead;
apparently survived some inundation on Pinlep.

Sida fallax — Seen planted on Mejatto in 19^-6 but not found in 1958.

Ihespesia populnea — Planted on Jabor but apparently did not survive
the typhoon.

Ceiba pentandra — One tree planted on Jabor, uprooted and still alive,
but doubtful if it will survive; seen on Imroj in 19*4-6 but not
in 1958.

Calophyllum inophyllum - -Large and conspicuous tree on most islets,

especially on lagoon ridges, badly battered by typhoon, more trees
uprooted or partly so than not; some blown completely into lagoon.
Generally sprouting if some roots still in ground even where inun-
dated. Not seen on two smaller islets except for one seedling on
Lijeron.

Pass if lor a laur if olia - -Said to have been planted on Jabor but not found.

Carica papaya - -On most islets, but large trees all eliminated by typhoon
Seedlings and partly grown, not very healthy, trees are occasional
to common.

Citrullus vulgar is -- Plant e d on Jabor but not seen after typhoon.

Cucumis sativus — Planted on Jabor but not seen after typhoon.

-6 5 -

Cucurbita maxima - -Commonly planted around habitations, no effects noted
but small plants only and very scarce on areas inundated by salt
water.

Cucurbita pepo — Planted on Jabor but not seen after typhoon.

Pemphis acidula - -Common, especially on most exposed areas, on bare rocks;
usually badly beaten and completely defoliated by typhoon (PI. Ill -a),
but seldom uprooted. Often broken off a few dm. above ground, small
branches usually killed (Pl.IX-a). Sprouting abundantly from root
crowns and trunks ( PI. VI I I -c).

Sonneratia alba - -Seen near Sydney Pier in 19^6, not found in 1958.

Bruguiera gymnorhiza — Dominant tree in most mangrove depressions; larger
trees often dead or with tops dead (Pls.IV-d,V-c), smaller ones,
especially seedlings 1 m. tall or less, not much affected by typhoon.

Terminalia catappa - -Planted around villages, especially on Jabor,
mostly uprooted by typhoon but still alive and sprouting.

Terminalia samoensis — Common, especially on shore ridges and in brushy
areas; generally not much injured by typhoon, but some larger
plants uprooted though still sprouting.

Barringtonia asiatica — Small groves of several large and many small

trees on Mejatto and Imroj islets; most of trees uprooted or large
ones with branches torn off; sprouting abundantly from roots,
stumps, trunks and large branches, as well as abundant seedlings.
These groves were so situated that they got the full force of both
wind and waves.

Miconia sp.? — Something identified as this genus was planted on Jabor
but not found after the typhoon.

Brassala ac tinophylla - -Large tree planted on Jabor, badly battered by
storm but sprouting from trunk and larger branches.

Polyscias fruticosa — Planted on Jabor but apparently did not survive
typhoon.

Polyscias guilf oylei - -Seen on Jabor in 19^6 but not found in 1958-

Polyscias Scutellaria - -A few plants in village on Majurirek; no effects
noted.

Centella asiatica - -Common on several islets, mostly in places not

inundated by salt water; no effects noted but plant probably was
more common before typhoon, especially on inundated islets.

Jasminum sambac — Planted on Majurirek; no effects noted.

Catharanthus roseus— Planted on Pinlep; no effects noted, but was
probably found on other islets before typhoon.

-66-

Cerbera manghas — Planted on Jabor; larger trees uprooted but sprouting,
saplings locally very common.

Nerium spp.--N. indicum and N. oleander both known from atoll in 19^+6;
"plants seen on Majurirek Islet in 1958 not flowering and hence
unidentified; no effects noted except lack of flowering.

Ochrosia oppositifolia --Seen only on the seaward side of the west end
of Imroj Islet, where there were several fair sized trees. Most
of these had been knocked down and the places where they were
growing covered by a thick gravel deposit. Two, almost at the
extreme end of the seaward side, were still standing, badly
battered but with some green leaves.

Plume ria rubra — A few shrubs or small trees planted around dwellings
and graves. Those on Mejatto, Majurirek and Pinlep showed no
signs of damage, but one on Kinajon was partly uprooted. That
on Mejatto was on a small section that was not touched by waves.
That on Kinajon was not inundated either, except possibly by
lagoon waves.

Ipomoea batatas --Seen planted on Imroj in 19^6 but not found in 1958.

Ipomoea littoralis — Occasional locally on Jabor and Pinlep; seen on
Imroj in 19^6 but not in 1958; no effects noted but on Jabor
probably much reduced by inundation and on Imroj probably
eliminated.

Ipomoea pes- caprae ssp. brasiliensis --Seen only on Jabor, except for a

single seedling on Ribon. In 19^6 this was one of the most abundant
plants on the narrow strip south of Jabor and around Sydney Pier.
Now there is little of it to be seen, as might be expected, since
this was where inundation and stripping of loose material were
most severe.

Ipomoea tuba — Seen only on Kinajon and around large banked oil tank at
Sydney Pier. No effects noted, but it would have been expected to
be more abundant.

Cordia subcordata - -Common generally, especially around periphery of
most islets; few trees actually uprooted but several somewhat
tipped over, some dead or at least leafless above, but with
vigorous lower branches flowering even where there was severe
inundation; seedlings common on deposited material.

Tour ne fort ia argentea --Seen on all islets visited, on most of them

common around periphery; variously battered by typhoon, uprooted
or branches broken off, usually sprouting vigorously; seedlings
abundant on newly deposited or disturbed ground.

Clerodendrum inerme --Occasional, locally common; defoliated but not
badly hurt by typhoon, recovering even where inundated by salt
water .

-67-

Lantana camara — Said to have been planted on Jabor but apparently did
not survive typhoon.

Premna obtusifolia - -Nowhere common; most plants severely battered, those
seen on Mejatto were only stumps with sprouts, but perhaps cut before
typhoon; plants on Majurirek less damaged than others.

Stachytarpheta urticifo ".ia- -Common weed on Jabor, probably all plants
seen grew from seeds after typhoon.

Ocimum sane turn - -Planted on Pinlep; seen on Imroj in 19*J-6, not in 1958;
no effects noted but probably eliminated from Imroj .

Nicotiana tabacum - -Growing on Jabor in 19^6, not seen in 1958.

Fhysalis angulata - -Abundant weed on most larger islets; probably grew
from seed since typhoon.

Solatium nigrum — Common weed on Jabor and Pinlep, probably grown from
seed since typhoon.

Jacaranda filic if olia - -Planted on Jabor but apparently did not survive
typhoon .

Beloperone guttata - -Planted on Jabor but not found after typhoon.

Blechum browne i - -Abundant weed locally on Jabor, probably grown from
seed since typhoon.

Hemigr aphis reptans --Rare, only seen on lagoon side of Pinlep; no
effects noted.

Pseuderanthemum car ruthersii — and its variety atr opurpur eum . Planted
very generally around habitations; suffered rather little damage
even from inundation, except where bent down and partly buried by
gravel sheets, even, here flowering freely.

Dentella repens — Locally common on Jabor; said to have appeared rather
recently in field of bananas brought from Kusaie and Ponape; no
effects noted, plants probably from seed after typhoon.

Guettarda speciosa — Common on most islets; most trees either badly
broken or uprooted, some of them sprouting, seedlings common.

Hedyotis biflora - -Occasional on Imroj, Mejatto and Jabor in protected
places; no effects noted, but probably much less common than
before typhoon.

Ixora casei — On Imroj before the typhoon, not seen after, apparently
did not survive typhoon.

Ixora fraseri — Planted on Jabor but did not survive typhoon.

-63-

Morinda citrifolia — Common on most islets, plants mostly bent down or
broken off by typhoon but sprouting vigorously, several very
large plants uprooted; seedlings occasional.

Hippobroma longif lora - -Heed in Jabor, one plant seen, in f lover,
during survey.

Scaevola sericea — One of most common plants on most islets; doubtless
greatly reduced in numbers by erosion of seaward ridges, many
plants battered but sending out leaves; seedlings common.

Adenostemma lavenia- -Seen on Imroj in 19^6, not found in 1958 except
one plant seen on Kinajon Islet.

Ageratum conyzoides — Known on Jaluit and reported by Germans and

Japanese, but not found in 19^6 or subsequently, until one small
plant was collected just above lagoon beach on Jabor.

C ichor ium endiviu m — Said to have been planted in garden on Jabor, not
found.

Spilanthes iabadicensi s — Said to have been a weed on Jabor, not found.

Synedrella nodiflora — Weed, common to occasional on Jabor, Kinajon,
and Pinlep; no effects noted, probably grown from seed after
typhoon .

Tagetes sp. — A few plants seen in garden on Majurirek, no effects noted
but may have been planted after typhoon.

Vemonia cinerea — Common weed on most inhabited islets; no effects
noted, but plants could have come from seed after typhoon;
not seen on Imroj where it was found in ±9k6.

Wedelia biflora — Common on all islets visited except Lijeron. Abundant
on parts of wider ones; no effects noted, but doubtless greatly
reduced in places eroded by waves and where much gravel was
deposited; probably much more abundant than formerly in places
where coconuts were knocked down but which were not inundated
by salt water ( PI. VIII -b).

-6 9 -

X. TERRESTRIAL FAUNA

J. L. Gressitt

The effect on the terrestrial fauna by Typhoon OPHELIA was much less
than expected in terms of the general damage to the atoll. On an atoll
the size of Jaluit, it seems apparent that even with very severe damage
to parts of the atoll, in most groups of land animals the percentage of
survival of species is fairly high, at least in one part or another of
the atoll. Thus, as those parts of the atoll that lost much of their
vegetation and soil regain a norma], vegetational situation, presumably
the faunal picture will regain its previous status within a reasonable
period. The length of this time period will be largely controlled by
distances and wind directions, in relation to less affected portions, and
by the habits and habitats of the animals and their vagility (natural
ability for dispersal), as well as by rate of revegetation and by human
travel .

It is felt that the natural populating of oceanic islands by insects
is effected primarily by passive transport in air currents. In the case
of mid-Pacific atolls the potential sources of additional species of
insects are distant and therefore strongly limited. Also, the number of
species of insects, and other animals, that an atoll can support is
strongly limited by the lack of many types of environments present on
high islands, and by the limitations of flora, soil, and fresh water.
If some species were exterminated from the atoll as a whole, repopula-
tion by those species not associated with man might be very slow.

Mammals : These on Jaluit were limited to rats, except for man and
his domestic dogs, cats, and pigs. Possibly three kinds of rats*were
present, or at least intermittently present, but precise data are lacking.
Rats suffered considerably from the typhoon — perhaps more than most
groups of animals. Apparently rather few survived. None were seen
during the survey, and only slight evidence of one was noted on Jabor.**
Those presumably present earlier were Rattus rattus , R norwegicus and
R. exulans . One opinion expressed was that the rats were largely exter-
minated, at least on Jabor, but that repopulation had taken place from
ships which had come in since the storm. Pigs and pets were only in s ma ll
part lost during the typhoon. Only sixteen of the 1,3°° people on the
atoll were killed (two of these died of exhaustion immediately following
the storm) .

Birds : Birds were not greatly affected by the typhoon. Local resi-
dents stated that although some dead birds were noticed after the storm,
in general the number of birds present afterwards did not appear to be

* Mice, Polynesian rats and common black or brown rats were previously
reported from Jaluit by Schnee (190^) and Kuroda (193*0, Norway rat (as
Mus decumanus ) by Finsch (1893, p. 122) — F.R.F.

** Coconuts, gnawed open by rats, were seen on Majurirek I. — F.R.F.

-70-

materially decreased. During the week's observations, two land birds with
rather few Marshall Is. records (New Zealand cuckoo and Micronesian pigeon)
were observed. During a visit to "Bird I." (Lijeron), large numbers of
birds were seen, particularly White -capped Noddies, Brown Boobies and
Frigate Birds, the former with abundant nests (of Pisonia leaves on twigs),
eggs, and young birds. One White Tern egg was seen. Birds seen were as
follows (in addition to those listed below, 13 other species are recorded
from Jaluit and 25 from the Marshalls as a whole by earlier authors ) :

Species not previously recorded at Jaluit Atoll are starred (*).
Letters refer to the places of observations as follows:

E — Majurirek (Elizabeth) L — Lijeron

I — Imroj M — Mejatto

J — Jabor P -- Pinlep

K — Kinajon R — Ribon

* Puffinus pacificus cuneatus (Salvin) — Wedge -tailed Shearwater .... J
-"- Phaeton lepturus dorotheae (Mathews) — White -tailed Tropic Bird. . . . P

* Sula leucogaster plotus (Forster) — Brown Booby. L

* Frigata minor minor (Gmelin) — Pacific Man-O'-War (Frigate Bird) ... I

Demigretta sacra sacra (Gmelin) -- Reef Heron MRJE

* Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin) -- Pacific Golden Plover IRJP

Numenius phaeopus variegatus (Scopoli) -- Whimbrel J

Heteroscelus incanus (Gmelin) — American Wandering Tattler KJPE

Arenaria interpres interpres (Linn. ) -- Turnstone JPL

Thalasseus bergii pelecanoides (King) — Crested Tern L

Anous stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) -- Common Noddy MRKEPL

Anous tenuirostris marcusi (Bryan) — White -capped Noddy MRJKEL

Gygis alba Candida (Gmelin) — White Tern MRJEPL

Ducula oceanica oceanica (Lesson and Garnot)-- Micronesian Pigeon . . . K
Eudynamis taitensis (Sparrman) — Long-tailed New Zealand Cuckoo. . . .JL

Reptiles : Terrestrial reptiles in the Marshalls include only lizards.

These do not seem to have been seriously affected by the typhoon. Large
populations of the small striped skink were seen on most islets, and also
fair numbers of geckos and the green, black and slender blackish brown
skinks. The lizards are the most important predators of insects in the
Marshalls, where perching birds are absent. Thus with any diminution of

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tfae lizard population, serious consequences might result with an abundance
of insects resulting. The lizards observed are as follows:

Lepidodactylus lugubris — Small House Gecko j

Gehyra oceanica — Big Tree Gecko j

Dasia smaragdina smarag Lina -- Green Skink. EJ

Emoia cyanura cyanura • - Striped Skink MRIJEPL

Emoia arnoensis — Black Skink , . jpk

Emoia boettgeri (?) — Slender Skink p

Amphibians : There are no native amphibians, and the giant toad (Bufo
marinus ) has apparently not been introduced to Jaluit.

Fresh water fish : There are no native fresh water fish in the
Marshalls. Gambusia minnows have been introduced to Jaluit for mosquito
control. These survived in at least one cistern (elevated about 1 m. ) in
the middle of the wide portion of Jabor. Those in non -elevated water tanks
apparently were killed by salt water inundation.

Insects : In general, insects seem to have been very successful in
surviving the typhoon. About 225 species of insects and about 23 species
of other terrestrial arthropods were collected during the survey. The
number of species surviving is undoubtedly very much larger. Insect
collections may be incomplete for the atoll as a whole because we worked
mainly on islets more heavily hit by the typhoon. Various traps (light
trap, fly traps, and AEG fallout sheets) were operated on Jabor, but
strong winds, rain and a bright moon interfered with their functioning.
It is estimated that the normal insect fauna of Jaluit should number
about 500 or more species. Probably very few, if any, of these were
eliminated by the storm. But one week, with much time spent in reaching
the different islets, was insufficient for an adequate survey. The
insect population appeared to be reviving and increasing rapidly. With
short life -cycles for many groups of insects in this latitude, some
species had undoubtedly already multiplied their populations many fold
in the 32 months since the typhoon.

In abundance of individual species, there was great variation,
partly related to normal trends, but partly accentuated by the typhoon.
Soil insects, normally weakly represented on atolls, were particularly
scarce, especially on islets that were inundated.

In some limited spots on less affected islets, and on broader parts
of more disturbed islets, litter (rotting vegetation) was found which
contained spring-tails, phorid flies and maggots of other flies. Some of
this material consisted of rotting Pandanus leaves (even of lost roofing),
rotting leaves of downed coconut palms, or old rotting logs. As mentioned
elsewhere, much soil, humus, and dead vegetation was washed into the
lagoon, besides many living trees. With the superabundance of newly
killed trees, the populations of many of these scavenging insects, reduced

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"by the typhoon, will undoubtedly undergo further great increase. On the
other hand, the burning frequently practised by the Jaluit people (noticed
particularly in the case of Majurirek) vri.ll considerably restrict these
insects, as well as humus production, which are related. Insects that
live under dead bark survived reasonably well, and were found to be breed-
ing up very large populations because of the great abundance of killed
and fallen trees, particularly breadfruit trees.

In the many old Japanese water cisterns, or oil tanks, as on Jabor,
considerable breeding of some insects was observed, even in tanks which
had been overrun by salt water. Most of these tanks now contain rotting
plant debris, and many of them support numerous mosquito larvae ( Culex
quJoquef asciatus ) , as well as larvae of a pale tendipedid (chironomid) fly,
a dark ephydrid fly, a damsel fly and two species of dragonflies. The
day-biting mosquito ( Aedes marshallensis ) was much rarer than the night-
biting Culex , and was seen breeding in a hole in the side of a downed
coconut palm.

House flies were quite abundant, together with other filth-flies,
particularly sarcophagids, and to a much lesser extent calliphorids .
The breeding places were not too well determined, other than latrines.
In some villages, flies were being trapped in large numbers in screen
fly traps baited with dead fish.

The insects which were encountered in perhaps greatest numbers were
a species of pale broad leaf hopper ( Exitianus fusconervosus ) on grasses,
herbs and some trees; a dark-striped lygaeid bug ( Nysius pulchellus ) on
Physalis , C yperus, Phyllanthus , Sorghum , grasses, Morinda , and other
plants; a slender predaceous bug (nab id) often on these same hosts and
on Crotalaria ; certain small species of flies, mainly seen resting on
leaves or flowers of Terminalia , Hernandia , Toumefortia ; certain species
of small ants on various plants; and several species of moths. The moths
included several abundant microlepidopterans and pyrales on T erminalia ,
Hibiscus , etc. and some noctuids, some of which often heavily defoliated
Wedelia , and also some on Pemphis , etc. The ubiquitous day-flying moth,
Utetheisa pulchelloides , was seen on Toumefortia on all islets. The
single butterfly species (with several color forms), Hypolimnas bolina ,
was very abundant on the wide part of Jabor, and on the less affected
islets. An abundant beetle, besides those found under bark of dead
breadfruit trees, was a small anthicid, probably a predator, on Sorghum ,
Cyperus , etc .

One group of insects which was noticeably scarce was the locusts.
Only one specimen was found, whereas one or more species are generally
very abundant on most atolls in grassy areas. The long -horned grass-
hopper, Physis , was also quite rare, and seen mostly in the nymphal
stage, indicating population build-up from a low level.

Spiders : About four species were moderately abundant, a few others
rare. Two species of centipedes were taken, and one scorpion. No milli-
pedes were taken except for a minute questionable form.

Terrestrial Mollusks ; Terrestrial mollusks are scarce in species in
the Marshalls and mostly quite small. Because of their protective devices,
they did not suffer much from the typhoon. Only in a few cases were any

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found to "be abundant. On Kinajon Islet a small species of snail was
very abundant on leaflets of young coconut palms, as well as on Canavalia
vines entangling the young palms. A more elongate land snail was found
in several spots (see Appendix II).

Fresh water or brackish water snails of about three species were
found in the mangrove pools on Majurirek, Pinlep and Imroj Islets.

Other terrestrial invertebrates : Few other strictly terrestrial
forms were encountered. No earthworms were seen. Isopods and amphipods
were scarce, aside from shore-living or mangrove -pond species. A few
small shrimps were found in mangrove swamps:

Ceridena sp. (Ateidae) --in mangrove pond, Imroj

Leander sp, ( Palaemonidae ) — in mangrove pond, Majurirek

Metabetaeus minutus (Alphaeidae) — in mangrove pond, Jabor, Mejatto,

Imroj

Land crabs included Sesarma , Grapsus grapus tenuicrus tatus , and
Metasesarma rousseauxi.

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XI. SUBMARINE EFFECTS OP THE TYPHOON

A. H. Banner

With only minor variations, the coral reefs of Jaluit Atoll are
generally similar to those of other atolls. On the ocean side of the
windward islets the seaward margin of the reef flat is serrate with
surge channels; however, the algal ridge, so often prominent on wind-
ward reefs, was not seen in any of the sectors examined. Behind the
outer front of the reef, the gradually sloping reef flat, exposed at
low tides, is smooth; its surface is composed to a large extent of
encrusting coralline algae. Landward the flat gives way to the eroded
beach rock formation that reaches to near high tide level.

On the lagoon side of the windward Islets the beach is composed of
beach rock, coral shingle, or sand, depending upon exposure to prevailing
winds, waves, and currents. At the low tide level there is a sandy
terrace, either a reef flat covered, by sand or a deeper sand deposit or
apron, bearing scattered living corals; this terrace may slope off
gradually to water ten or more feet deep, or it may abruptly change from
a shallow shelf to a steep slope into deeper water. This lagoon slope
is also of either sand or coral gravel, but has a greater abundance of
growing coral, often in massive groupings of many species.

On the lagoon side of the leeward islets the conditions are somewhat
similar to those of the lagoon side of the windward islets, but with more
extensive sand flats. On the ocean side of the lee islets the reef is
markedly different from that of the windward side, being broader, with
the surface of the reef flat less smooth, and with the outer edge slop-
ing more gradually into deep water without any definite development of
surge channels.

All of these areas were examined except the front and fore6lope of
the windward reef. In all areas examined very few changes due to the
storm were noted.

There was evidence, however, that the area not examined suffered
rather extensive damage from the storm. Because of the high waves during
the visit of the group it was dangerous to venture to the outer edge of
the windward reef and impossible to explore the surge channels. Presum-
ably that portion of the reef was originally similar to the windward reefs
on other atolls: from the outer reef flat the surge channels would be
separated by buttresses; in the actual surf region there would be almost
nothing but encrusting coralline algae; from the depth of about five feet
and down there would be an ever -increasing covering of living and dead
corals including Pocillopora meandrina and shelf -like species of Acropora
(for example A. spicifera ) both on the buttresses and in places on the
walls of the surge channels. Both the buttresses and -toe surge channels
would level off at a shelf about fifteen or twenty feet deep; the shelf
would be in the neighborhood of one hundred or more feet wide, sloping
to about 40 feet deep; there the bottom would drop abruptly avay to the
greater depths. Scattered on the shelf would be many heads of living
corals, again predominantly species of Acropora; among the bases of these

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heads and massive coral growths would lie a thick layer of dead coral
fragments broken from the growing reef front during normal storms.

Lacking direct observation of this section of the reef, the damage
to it must be deduced from the bars of boulders and gravel lying on the
reef flat. This bar has been described in detail earlier (see p. 39);
here it will suffice to state that it is a new feature along the windward
beaches examined. In a typical section near Jabor it was about 60 feet
wide, up to 8 feet high, and about 100 feet from the reef edge and 30
feet from the beach rock.

The composition of the bar varied from place to place, but the bulk
of its components appeared to come from the reef front and fore slope.
Evidence of this origin includes the following:

1. The presence of many fresh pieces of coral with the calices
uneroded, and in some instances with the branches unbroken.
These corals, including Pocillopora meandrina and Acropora
spp. occur normally only in the surf zones of reefs.

2. The presence of the remains of surf inhabiting organisms,
such as the rock oyster, Chama, and the slate-pencil sea
urchin, Heterocentrotus . The shells of the oysters were
not beach-worn but fresh with the nacre of the surface
unweathered. Numerous fresh, uneroded spines of the urchin
were found, and in one case a section of the test with spines
attached was seen.

3. The presence, on old dead fragments of coral and over-grown
coral heads, of fresh bright red patches of colonial
Foraminifera, a form that grows abundantly upon the fragments
found on the outer shelf of the reef.

k. The presence of the largest coral boulders on the reef at the
seaward edge of the bar, while the landward edge was composed
of the smallest fragments.

5- The report by the Marshallese that for a period after the
typhoon the bars gave off a strong stench of decomposing
organic material, a condition which could not obtain were
the bars composed of long-dead corals from the boulder ridge.

However, not all of the material in the bar originated in the outer
reef area. On Jabor and Mejatto, where the bar was most carefully
examined, the following were found:

1. Old blackened coral fragments that had obviously been
buried in the soil of the islet.

2. Coral, usually old and partially overgrown but, in some
instances, fresh and recently killed, of species
characteristic of lagoons, for example Fungia scutaria .

3. Rounded basaltic rocks with calcareous deposits on the

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surface, brought by man to the atoll either as ballast or as
ornamentation, and pieces of iron and cement (several of which
had fresh tubes of marine worms attached), that would most
logically be found in the lagoon where ships anchored, not
off the turbulent windward reef .*

The bulk of the material in the bar was not recognizable as to source;
however, as, of the pieces that could be so recognized, most were from
beyond the outer edge of the reef flat, it is logical to conclude that
most of the bar was from there.

At low-low tide level and below on the lagoon side of the windward
islets few storm effects could be seen. Those few that were observed
include the new offshore bars, either exposed at low tide or a few feet
below the surface; the presence of storm-carried trees on the reef flats
and on the slopes beyond the reef flats; and the presence of fine organic
sediments in a few restricted areas.

Those familiar with Jaluit Atoll state that the offshore bars along
the lagoon reef flat were built during the typhoon. The highest and most
conspicuous of these was found near the outer edge of the lagoon reef flat
off the northeast end of Jabor. The bar started in the north close to
shore on the slope leading to the depths of the pass and continued south-
ward, swinging away from the islet and lying near the outer edge of the
reef flat, and finally curved back towards shore near the anchorage of
Jabor in a rough "C" -shape. Its base rested on the reef flat slightly
below the low-low tide level, and its top rose two to three feet, the
top thereby being exposed at mid-tides. The slope towards the lagoon was
gradual; the slope towards the islet was abrupt, being at the approximate
angle of repose. The bar was usually about 50 feet wide. It was composed
of rubble derived from long dead coral and other calcareous debris mostly
of small size, an inch or less in diameter, several inches long; scattered
about its surface were some larger pieces, up to about 6 inches in diameter.
The source of the >ar material was questionable, for all was old and dis-
colored; however it would be logical to presume that some, at least, came
from the northwestern tip of Jabor, which was cut away in the typhoon,
and other portions, pre jably the bulk, came from the channel slope where
similar pieces may still be found. The shape of the bar, no matter what
the source, indicates it was formed by onshore waves from the lagoon.

It should also be noted that on the reef flat behind the bar, and at
some spots in the bar, there were occasional larger heads of dead coral,
up to several feet in diameter. These must have been carried on to the
reef flat by previous storms, for all examined were found to be surrounded
by delicately branching and unbroken live coral.

A bar, about U50 feet from shore, was found in the lagoon south of the
anchorage at Jabor. It was similar in size, shape and composition to the
one north of the anchorage, but differed in that its base was lower, and
its top, about two feet higher than the base, lay near low-low tide level.

* Pieces of glass were also found (see pp. 12, 23).

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Aerial inspection showed that the reef was an off-shore feature of most
of the length of the long isthmus connecting Jabor with Jaluit. The
source of the material in the bar could not be ascertained, but it is
likely that it came from the detritus of the gradual slope into the depths
of the lagoon.

No offshore bars were noted off the northern and leeward islets.

Along the shore, in the high intertidal zone, and continuing out
to deep areas of the lagoon, were found storm-carried trees with their
root masses intact. Most of the trees were either coconut or pandanus.
Near shore most were lying on their sides, but some mar shore, and all
in the deeper water, were standing erect; the ones in deeper water were
obviously buoyed by the trunks and sunk by the rocks captured in the root
mass. Off the southern portion of Jabor, the only deep water inspected,
they were found up to a thousand feet from shore, resting on a bottom
eighty feet deep.

In only a few places were sediments composed of organic matter
observed. They were most conspicuous in the lagoon off the middle of
Mejatto. Here, on a ripple -marked sand bottom in ten to twenty feet of
water, the depressions between the ripples contained thin deposits of
loose black sediment, so low in specific gravity that it was stirred by
the slight currents. Identifiable fragments of the sediment appeared to
be decomposed plant material. No similar deposits were seen in gravel
portions of the bottom.

Aside from these features and the bars built out from land, no
observable change was found below the low-low tide level in the lagoon.
In the zone of extreme low water even the delicately branching lagoon
corals were unbroken. In none of the sectors examined were there any
deposits of fresh sand, as indicated by the absence of recent sediment
burying the lower portions of coral heads or lying between the bases of
the dense coral patches on the reef flats, as for example within the new
bar off the northern end of Jabor.

Similarly, inspection of both the ocean and lagoon sides of the
leeward islets showed no obvious damage below low-low tide level. The
gradually sloping flats on the lagoon side were of sand and had isolated
massive complexes of many genera of corals, and these, including the
fragile staghorn coral ( Acropora grandis ) , were not broken. On the ocean
side beyond the edge of the reef flat the gradually sloping bottom,
covered with a continuous layer of growing coral, also showed no signs of
damage. It is true that on the ocean reef flat there were scattered
boulders of dead coral and that in the depressions on the flat there
were coral fragments; but all of the former appeared to have rested
long in their present locations, and fragments of coral, often rather
fresh, are a common feature of such depressions.

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XII. MARINE RESOURCES
A. H. Banner

There is nothing to indicate a lessening of the fishing potential
of Jaluit except possibly on the outer slopes of the windward ocean
reef. The windward reef is not used for fishing except for torch
fishing at night and in times of exceptionally calm water. The actual
fishing potential within the lagoon may increase, "because additional
fertilizer in the form of organic detritus has "been carried into the
lagoon where it can stimulate the production of fixed algae and phyto-
plankton. Moreover, the masses of tree roots in the water are already
covered with a film of algae that is being browsed upon by small herbi-
vorous fish and the roots offer hiding places for small fish. These
small fish are the food of the larger carnivores.

The Marshallese on the atoll have reported that even immediately
after the typhoon the fishing was better than before. It is likely that
this merely represents a greater fishing effort rather than any true
increase in larger fish, for if the postulated mechanisms do increase
the fishery, it would be only after a lag of a number of months.

If there is an increase in productivity in the lagoon, it should
last for several years, the length of time for the recycling nutrients
to be flushed to sea and for the root masses to decompose entirely.

Another possible effect of the typhoon would be to increase the
toxicity of the fish in the lagoon. Before the typhoon, Jaluit Atoll
had the reputation of having more poisonous fish than any other atoll in
the archipelago. Several workers (Randall 1958 > Dawson 1959) have
suggested, without any direct proof, that the toxicity of the fish results
from direct feeding upon poisonous algae, or feeding upon herbivores that
eat the poisonous algae. If the fertilization of the lagoon increases
the amount of the hypothetical poisonous algae there may be an increase
both in the toxicity of the species now known to be dangerous and in
the number of species found to be toxic. However, the Marshallese eating
the fish from the lagoon report no change in toxicity patterns.

Note: For information on poisonous fishes in Jaluit reference may be
made to Hiyama 19^3 and Bartsch et al 1959- --Ed.

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XIII. POPULATION AND ECONOMY OF JALUIT

J. B. Mackenzie

Population and economy prior to November 8, 1957

Population Distribution

Prior to World War I, the Marshall Islands were under German Admin-
istration with headquarters on the island of Jabor, in Jaluit Atoll.
After 1918, the Marshall Islands were officially turned over to the
Japanese, who took over all German properties in the Marshalls under a
League of Nations Mandate. The Japanese Civil Administration continued
to use Jabor as headquarters for the Marshall Islands.

The Japanese immediately started setting up a large center in Jaluit,
with independent trading companies and small businesses run by the Japa-
nese themselves. They drew their man -power from the surrounding islands
for the labor needed to build and maintain their center on Jabor. This,
of course, resulted in large forces of Marshallese coming into Jaluit from
the other atolls. The attraction of Jaluit to the Marshallese continued
up into the 1930's. After 1935, with the Japanese Military moving into
the Marshalls, the need for labor forces again started a sharp rise of
population influx into Jaluit.

Two large concentrations of people were at Imroj Islet and Jabor
Islet. The islet of Imroj was established as the Japanese Naval Air
Station, where large labor battalions were put to work on the building
of a major air station. Jabor became the headquarters for the Army, with
small Army units stationed on the larger islets in Jaluit Atoll. Just
prior to the war, the Civil Administration started construction of a new
center three miles south of the Army center on the islet of Jabor.

United States Forces moving across the Pacific to the Marshalls in
19 hk cut off the Japanese supply lines to the large military atolls,
causing another shift in population. It was necessary to move people to
islets where they could get native foods. All imported food items were
cut off from the Marshallese to enable the military to feed their army
and navy personnel. With the U. S. forces striking in the Marshalls and
creating a shortage of food for the Japanese military forces, the Marshall-
ese were again moved to larger islets where they were put to work gathering
food and where they could be under close surveillance.

The surrender of Japan in I9U5 and the taking over of the administra-
tion of the Marshall Islands by the U. S. Navy caused another shift of
people. Imroj Islet was set up as the central government seat for the
Marshallese in Jaluit Atoll. This shifted the main concentration of
people to Imroj • The approximate population of this village numbered
between three and four hundred. This was considered the main village on
Jaluit, with smaller villages or settlements scattered throughout the
atoll .

The atoll is divided into four divisions, which could be called
political centers, or as referred to by the Marshallese, "Mountain

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Marshalls" (which in our local government are called precincts). The
population in these four divisions are usually concentrated on one large
islet within each section, with one or tiro families on the smaller islets
that are part of this section and many of the other islets uninhabited.
The four centers are: l) Jaluit Islet on the south tip including Jabor, Ewo
and Moni islets, 2) Majurirek Islet off the south-west pass, with Ai,
Pinlep, and some small uninhabited islets, 3) ifotle Islet in the northern
part of Jaluit including several uninhabited islets south-east up to
Mejatto Islet, and k) Imroj Islet, the atoll council seat, including the
islets south-east of her down to Enejet Islet, across the pass from Jabor.

Total population of Jaluit was approximately 950, as shown by the
Navy census taken in 19^9; Imroj had the greatest concentration of 300 to
lj-00 people and the other three divisions with about 150 people in each.

In 1955, the Marshalls Import Export Company, the Protestant Inter-
mediate School, the Catholic Mission School and the Trust Territory's
Jaluit Project moved to Jabor, causing a shift of population within the
atoll. Jabor, which had been uninhabited for almost ten years, came to
life again and the population at the end of 1956 was 250. The Kwajalein
Import Trading Company moved into Jabor in the early part of 1957^ in-
creasing the population to 280 people. The large majority of the people
who moved to Jabor were from the surrounding islets of Jaluit, with probably
20 people coming from other atolls in the Marshalls.

The Marshallese have always considered Jabor as the main islet in
the atoll, since the Germans and Japanese built and developed there the
administrative center for the Marshalls. It was, therefore, only natural
for them to return to Jabor in large numbers. The only reason that the
council seat was not moved over to Jabor was the scarcity of private land
owned by the Marshallese. Most of the land on Jabor is government owned
with title coming all the way from German times. The government needed
all of its land for an experiment station in lowland agriculture.

The rebuilding of Jabor caused a constant movement of people across
the lagoon into Jabor. The two trading companies and the headquarters
of the Trust Territory representative at Jabor changed the port of call
for ships from Imroj to Jabor. The people came across on their sailing
boats and canoes with copra to sell to the trading companies and returned
to their islets with trade goods. Many of the people came to Jabor to
wait for a ship or just to be there while the ship was in port. At such
times, there were anywhere from four to five hundred people on the islet.

There has always been a considerable amount of movement within the
atoll itself. Each year for the Christmas holidays, people from all of
the islets go to Imroj. The majority of the people belong to the Protes-
tant Church and move to Imroj where the central Protestant Church and
Minister are located. At the same time, election of new officers is held
for the atoll. There are usually seven to eight hundred people present
on Imroj during the holidays. They move in with all of their worldly
possessions, prepared to remain from one to two months until the limited
available transportation can take them home again.

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Food resources

I . Indigenous

a. Agriculture

1. The primary food resources which the people depend upon are
locally grown and collected. The main food items used in each household
are coconuts, jekaro (coconut sap), breadfruit and pandanus. Breadfruit
is a seasonal fruit. Most breadfruit trees bear twice a year. The
heaviest crop is from May to July with a very light crop in December and
January. The surplus breadfruit is usually preserved and used between
seasons. Pandanus, another seasonal food, is used between breadfruit
seasons. The pandanus can also be dried and kept for long periods of
time. Coconuts are used daily by each household. The dry, ripe coconut
is grated and the milk squeezed out, to be used with other foods. The iu
(embryo) is taken from the sprouted nut and is usually eaten right from
the nut or cooked for a meal. The sweet water of the young green coconut
is used for drinking and the soft meat is eaten with a spoon. The flesh
of the dry, ripe nut is also eaten at meals.

2. The secondary foods are taro, banana, and arrowroot which
are usually used between breadfruit and pandanus seasons. There was very
little cultivation of taro in Jaluit and it was found only on a few of
the islets. The coconut was emphasized by the Japanese and many of the
taro pits were put into coconut groves. Arrowroot is cooked like a
potato and eaten at meals with other foods. The people also make a candy
by grating the arrowroot and boiling it into a spongy ball then covering
it with freshly grated coconut meat. Most of their bananas are eaten
between meals and occasionally cooked and eaten at meals. There is also
a small amount of sweet potato and pumpkin grown and used as a secondary
food. Limes and papayas are grown in very small amounts. Lime juice is
used to spread over raw fish. Papayas, when ripe, are usually only eaten
by children while the green papayas are cut up and boiled as a vegetable.

b. Fisheries

1. Fish has always played a very important part in the Marshall -
ese diet. It was their sole source of protein before livestock were
introduced. The early inethod of catching fish with a fish trap is very
rarely used today. Most of the fishing is done by hand line and trolling
in the lagoon. When the weather permits it, they fish for tuna on the
outside of the lagoon off the deep water passes.

Most of the edible fish are caught in the lagoon or on the
outer reefs, with nets or, at night, with coconut torches. The night
fishing along the reefs is usually done in groups of three or four men,
when the tide is low. The fish caught on the outer reef are of many
varieties that can be found all through the south Pacific. The fish
caught in the lagoon are of various types, some of which are poisonous.
The Marshallese in Jaluit know which are the poisonous types and are very
rarely poisoned. Some of the types caught in the lagoon are the sea bass,
parrot fish, surgeon fish, mackerel, squirrel fish, trigger fish, butter-
fly fish, mullet and sardines. The red snapper family is also a very

-en-
large group that is caught in the lagoon, but the majority of them are
poisonous. This same fish is a safe food in many lagoons of the Marshalls.

2. Shell fish in the Marshalls can he considered as secondary,
as the amount caught is negligible and is not eaten daily. The clams
along the inside reefs are gathered and usually placed in salt brine, and
kept in bottles, and eaten when no other protein food is available for
meals. The larger shell fish are occasionally caught and eaten. Langusta
(Lobster) are rarely caught in Jaluit. There is an occasional langusta
gathering, which is usually held during the night, with torches.

II. Food imports

The Marshallese import a great part of their food, as they have
become accustomed to do from Japanese times. The trading companies from
Japan opened up a whole new line of imported foods and consequently the
Marshallese depend on the import of these foods. A small amount of these
items was introduced during the German times, so the people were somewhat
familiar with new foods. In order to stimulate the production of copra
to meet the demand in Japan, consumption of store food was encouraged.

There are two large trading companies in the Marshalls: Marshalls
Import Export Company and Kwajalein Import Trading Company. There are
numerous smaller companies and private individuals that import trade
goods. The two large companies import the greatest amount of foods.
Marshalls Import Export Company has been granted the only Trust Territory
license to purchase copra for export. The same company owns and operates
a trading vessel in the Marshalls, and the Trust Territory operates an
AKL to help cover the entire Marshalls.

The imports of food from the United States and other countries in
the world total $^1^,000.00 per year for the entire Marshalls. Jaluit
Atoll annually imports about $25,000.00 worth of foods. The main imports
are rice, flour, sugar, canned milk and canned meats and fish.

Cash crops and products

1. Copra

Copra is the largest export item that the Marshallese have in Jaluit.
Before the typhoons struck Jaluit in November 1957 and January 1958, they
exported approximately 500 to 600 tons of copra a year at $100.00 a ton.
This in dollars was $50,000.00 to $60,000.00 a year and was the largest
source of income.

The men in the atoll do most of the work in producing copra with the
women helping them. The coconuts are husked and carried from the groves,
usually to the homes, where the women open them and spread them out to
dry. The nuts 3re left in the sun for two or three days after which they
are cut into small pieces and left on mats to dry. The coconut meat is
spread out each norning and taken in every evening or when it rains. When
the meat is thoroughly dry, it is packed into bags and stored under the
house or taken to the trading company. The trading company usually
exchanges the value of the copra for trade goods, or if the producer
chooses, gives him cash for the copra brought in.

-85-

2 . Trochus

Trochus is considered the second cash crop, "but the total amount of
money received for the gathering of trochus is relatively small in compar-
ison to copra. About two tons of trochus are harvested each year in
Jaluit. The world market for trochus fluctuates to such an extent that
it may he $800.00 a ton one year and $400.00 the next. The trochus
season comes once a year and usually falls in July or August. The length
of season for gathering trochus is limited by law to fifteen days in
Jaluit. Trochus is found in three areas of Jaluit Atoll where the divers
gather them and leave them on the beaches until the animal inside the
shell either rots or is eaten by ants. The harvest is then taken into
Jabor to be sold at the trading companies. Trochus under three inches
diameter are not to be taken from the beds, and a heavy fine is imposed
if anyone is caught with shells under three inches.

Cash uses

The people of Jaluit use their cash primarily for the purchase of
imported food items such as rice, flour, sugar, canned milk and canned
meats and fish. The balance of their money is usually spent on soft
beverages, tobacco, clothing, building materials, boats, boat parts and
gear, kerosene, household items and sundries such as perfume, hair oil
and soap. Most of this merchandise is purchased from the trading companies'
representatives on the 'boats that come into the area. Many of the people
order radios, ready-mad2 dresses, and other miscellaneous items from mail
order houses in the United States.

Effects of typhoons LOIA and MAMIE (November 8 and lk f 19 57 )

The effects of these two typhoons were felt very little by the
majority of the people on Jaluit. Damage from these typhoons was
relatively slight and was practically confined to Jabor. In Typhoon
LOLA, the south end of the islet was under water, but there were little
damage and no injuries. Typhoon MAMIE caused very little damage on
Jaluit and again its effects were confined to the islet of Jabor.

The Jaluit Project, a Trust Territory Agriculture Experiment Station,
suffered the highest amount of damage and that was in plant loss. This
damage was not great, however. During Typhoon MAMIE, U. S. Navy Sea Air
Rescue Plane 909 on a sea rescue mission, was badly damaged at Jaluit.

Situation after Typhoon OPHELIA

On January 10, 1958, immediately after Typhoon OPHELIA struck Jaluit,
the Island Development Officer was sent from the office of the District
Administrator to survey conditions at Jaluit. OPHELIA struck Jaluit on
January 7, 1958. Upon the arrival of the Island Development Officer at
Jaluit, a report on conditions that existed was immediately forwarded to
the District Center at Majuro. Immediate aid in the way of water, food,
clothing and temporary shelters was brought in by the joint efforts of
the Navy at Kwajalein ar.d the Trust Territory.

-86-

The people had gone through a period of extreme physical hardship,
but their mental attitude was quite healthy. They accepted the storm as
something that happens and did not question why it had happened or how
such storms occur. They were able to joke, sing and laugh, and accept
the situation. They were ready to start rebuilding their homes with
whatever material was available on the islands. They understood the
scope of the problems before them, were cooperative and shared what little
they had with others who were more unfortunate than they. There was no
aimless wandering around as one might expect after such a devastating
storm. Fourteen people were lost in the storm. (Two more died later.)
Their loved ones showed some grief and sorrow, but accepted it as an act
of God.

The survey of damage showed that the islets in the eastern part of
the atoll suffered complete flood damage where three to eight foot waves
of sea water had come over the islets. All houses and 95$ of all trees
were destroyed on the east coast. The majority of the cement cisterns
were either destroyed or filled with salt water, creating an extreme
shortage of drinking water. The west coast of Jaluit suffered approxi-
mately Gyfo damage to all trees and foliage. AH of the sail boats which
had been used to haul copra and passengers around the atoll were completely
damaged or lostj fifty to sixty canoes were damaged beyond repair. It was
impossible for people to move within the atoll. With the exception of the
old concrete structures that were left by the Japanese, houses and other
buildings in the atoll were destroyed.

Immediate aid was dispatched to the people of Jaluit by the U. S.
Navy at the request of the District Administrator. A medical team was
flown from Navy Station Kwajalein, 200 miles away, to examine the criti-
cally injured people and deliver additional medical supplies and food.
Three injured people were flown to the Trust Territory Hospital at Majuro
for surgery and hospitalization. An average of two flights a day came in
with food, water and clothing. The Trust Territory vessel, m/v ROQUE,
arrived five days later with additional food and water. On board were
medical teams made up of two doctors, sanitarians, dental practitioners,
health aides, the District Administrator, the Director of Agriculture
and Fisheries, the Director of Coconut Operations and the Marshalls
District Director of Public Health.

A complete survey was made of Jaluit, covering every phase of damage
to the atoll. A program was put into effect immediately for the relief of
the people at Jaluit. This involved movement of food, water, clothing,
beddings and building material.

Adjustments in typhoon situations prior to American times

Spanish and pre -Spanish times

In the Marshall Islands after the Spanish claimed the islands in 1668
until 1885, there were no changes in the traditional rehabilitation
methods following a typhoon. After a typhoon, the Marshallese were
directed by their Iroij (King) with respect to the rehabilitation of the
islands damaged by the storm. Food and tools were provided by the
islanders in the atolls that were able to help. In many cases where

-87-

damage was to all of tie islets in one atoll, the weak, the women and the
children were moved to atolls close by. Food was brought from the neighbor-
ing atolls to help support the workers while they rehabilitated the atoll.
At the completion of rehabilitation the majority of the workers were
moved to join their families on one of the neighboring atolls. A very
small group of workers were kept in the damaged atoll, where they main-
tained the plantings. When the first of the subsistence crops came into
bearing, people slowly moved back into the islands. In many cases, a
destructive typhoon was followed by a period of famine, sickness and
great loss of life.

German times

During the occupation of the Marshalls by Germany, very little was
done to help the people through typhoon rehabilitation. In 1905, Jaluit
was struck by a typhoon that caused considerable damage to the north-
eastern side of the atoll. At the time of the storm, a German ship
unloading cargo at Jabor, left to ride the storm out and returned to
finish unloading. The food aboard the ship was the only food used to
give temporary help and the Marshallese returned to the old system of
rehabilitating themselves.

Japanese times

The Japanese, during their occupation of the Marshalls, carried out
a program of rehabilitation of islands after any typhoon devastation.
They usually helped the people struck by the storm with enough food to
get them started on a rehabilitation program. They also sent in men to
help them plan the replanting and feeding of the people. This program
us ually lasted about a "-ear. No charge was made directly to the people,
but a small tax was applied to the copra coming out of the atoll to cover
the monies spent in helping with the rehabilitation.

Note: Attention should be directed to the beds of phosphatic hardpan
(B-horizon) in the Jemo soil areas on Imroj and Kinajon (see p. kj)
because of their potential economic value to the inhabitants as coconut
plantations begin to show signs of phosphate deficiency. Analyses of
samples of these phosphate rocks in the laboratories of the U. S. Geologi-
cal Survey show 1^ to 16$ P2O5. While these small beds are insignificant
commercially they should serve the needs of the local inhabitants for
many years to come and render costly importation of commercial phosphates
unnecessary. These beds are not, of course, in any way related to the
typhoon under investigation, but their discovery by F. R. Fosberg was a
valuable by-product of the expedition. - -D.I. B.

-89-

GLOSSARY OF TEEMS

Algal ridge . The relatively slight ridge, dominantly of calcareous algal
"composition, typically found at or near the edge of the reef flat on
the ocean side.

Apron . See sand aprons .

Bar . Bar , spit , and hook are used in the usual sense. A bar is usually
straight but may be curved or arcuate. An offshore bar is not tied
to the land even at low -low tide. A spit or hook is a form of bar
attached to the land, at least at low-low tide.

Beach rock . Rock formed from beach deposits, whether a beach sandstone
or a beach conglomerate.

Boulder. A rock over 10 inches (25 cm.) in greatest diameter.

Boulder tracts or gravel tracts . Scattered patches or small fields of
boulders or gravel lying on the reef flat.

Channel . See scour channel and surge channel .

Depression . See elongate depression and mangrove depression .

Elongate depression or longitudinal depression . Specifically, an elongated
depression or trough between a bar, spit, or hook resting upon the
reef flat and a shore ridge or shore slope that is part of an islet.

Erosion ramp . The gently sloping, relatively plane surface that lies just
to landward of the reef flat, typically on the seaward sides of islets.

Fore slope . The steeply sloping surface between the reef margin and the
deep ocean.

Gravel . An unconsolidated aggregate whose particles are dominantly
larger than 2 mm. in diameter.

Gravel , small . An unconsolidated aggregate whose particles are dominant-
ly between 2 and 100 mm. in diameter.

Gravel apron . See sand apron .

Gravel bar . See gravel and bar.

Gravel sheet . A gravel deposit in distinctly sheet form. More extensive
in general than boulder tracts or gravel tracts (which see) and
lying on an islet rather than on a reef flat.

Gravel tracts . See boulder tracts .

Hole . See plunge hole .

Hook. See bar.

-90-

Intertidal zone . The vertical zone "between high -high and low-low tide
levels .

Islet - An island of an atoll, most commonly upon the encircling reef hut
"also one upon a pinnacle or reef patch in the lagoon.

Knoll . A coral growth comparable in size to a reef patch but rounded in
aspect and whose summit is usually below low-low tide level.

Lime mud . Mud with calcium carbonate as a dominant constituent.

Longitudinal depression . See elongate depression .

Mangrove depression . A depression occupied by mangrove trees, but with
a hard bottom rather than one comprised of muds or oozes, which is
called a mangrove swamp .

Marsh . A depression containing grasses or sedges and with a mud or
ooze bottom.

Muck . Mud that is dominantly organic.

Mud . Unconsolidated materials, sticky and cohesive when wet, whose particles
are dominantly less than 1/32 mm. in diameter. See also lime mud .

Patches or patch reefs . Detached reefs, normally within the lagoon.

Pinnacle . A patch reef with a height greater than its maximum diameter.

Pit . See scour pit .

Plunge hole . A hole formed by running water on the downstream, down-
slope side of a topographic break (steep slope).

Plunge pool . A deep plunge hole , approximately circular, containing water.

Ramp . See erosion ramp .

Reef . An eminence on the sea bottom rising to within 6 fathoms of the
surface .

Reef flat . A relatively flat area of reef rock whose surface lies near
low tide level.

Reef margin . The outer edge of the reef flat, usually marked by an
abrupt change in slope.

Ridge . See algal ridge , also, shore ridge .

Rubble . Gravel of predominantly angular fragments.

Sand . An unconsolidated aggregate whose particles are dominantly between
l/32 and 2 mm. in diameter.

-91-

Sand apron or gravel apron . Apron-shaped deposits of sand or gravel,
usually on lagoon reef flats.

Sand horn . A horn-shaped sand-bar typically found on the reef flat at
the inner corner or end of an islet.

Scour channel . A channel across or partly across an islet, formed by
the scouring action of water cutting through unconsolidated or
consolidated material that lies above the reef flat.

Scour pit . A depression formed by running water on the downstream side
of an obstruction, such as an uprooted palm.

Shore ridge . A ridge upon or immediately adjacent to a shore. (Also
called beach ridge . )

Spit . See bar .

Submarine terrace . The relatively flat, almost horizontal surface some-
times found at depth on the ocean side of the foreslope.

Surge channel . A channelway in the reef, typically normal, to and across
the reef margin and foreslope on the ocean side.

Swamp . A depression containing woody plants and with a mud or ooze
bottom. See also mangrove depression and marsh .

Terrace . See submarine terrace .

Typhoon . A storm that forms over the tropical oceans and has sustained
windspeeds greater than 73 m.p.h. (Same as hurricane . )

Woodland. An open stand of trees.

-93-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnow, T.

The hydrology of the Northern Marshall Islands.
Atoll Res. Bull. 30: 1-7, 195^-

Bartsch, A. F., Drachman, R. H. and McFarren, E. F.

Report of a survey of the fish poisoning problem in the Marshall Islands
1-117, U. S. Public Health Service, 1959-

Blumenstock, D. I.

Weather summary, 1957-

Climatological Data, Hawaii, U. S. Weather Bureau, 1957

Typhoon effects at Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
Nature 182: 126,-1269, 1958.

Dawson, E. Y.

Changes in Palmyra Atoll and its vegetation through the activities

of man, 1913-1958.
Pac. Nat. 1(2): 1-51, 1959-

Finsch, 0.

Ethnologische Erfahrungen und Belegsttlcke aus der Sudsee. Dritte

Abtheilung: Mikronesia (West-Oceanien) .
Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien 8: 1-106, 119-275, 295-^37, 1893.

Fleet Weather Central, Guam
Annual typhoon report, 1957-

Annual typhoon report, 1958*

Fosberg, F. R.

Soils of the Northern Marshall Atolls, with special reference to

the Jemo series.
Soil Sci. 78: 99-107, 195^-

Gibbs, L.

The Hong Kong typhoon of September l8th, 1906.
Quart. Jour. R. Met. Soc. 3*4-: 293-299, 1908.

Hiyama, Y.

Report on the research of poisonous fish in the South Seas.
Nissan Fish. Inst. Odawara 1-137, 19^3 (in Japanese, translated as
Poisonous fish of the South Seas. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv.
Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish. 25: 1-188, 1950.)

Jeschke, C.

Bericht fiber den Orkan in den Marshall -Inseln am 30. Juni 1905, and,

Bericht iiber den Marshall-Inseln.
Petermanns Mitt. 51: 248-2^9, 1905; 52: 272-277, 1906.

Includes map of typhoon track through southern Marshalls in first

paper .

Kuroda, N.

/Rodents of the South Sea Islands in the collection of Marquis YamashinaJ,
Bot. and Zool. 2: 1012-1020, 193^-

McKee, E. D.

Geology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 69: 2^1-278, 1958.

Storm sediments on a Pacific atoll.
Jour. Sedim. Petrol. 29: 35^-364, 1959-

McKee, E. D., Chronic, J. and Leopold, E. B.

Sedimentary belts in lagoon of Kapingamarangi Atoll.
Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. *J-3: 5OI-562, 1959 .

Niering, W. A.

Bioecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands: Terrestrial

aspects.
Atoll Res. Bull. k9: I-32, 1956.

Randall, J. E.

A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with a tentative

explanation of its cause.
Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. 8: 236-267, 1958.

Richards, A. F.

Transpacific distribution of floating pumice from Isla San Benedicto,

Mexico.
Deep-Sea Research 5: 29-35, 1958-

Schnee, fj>7J

Die Landfauna der Marschall-Inseln.
Zool. Jalirb. Syst. 20: 387-^12, 190k.

Stone, E. L., Jr.

The soils of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands.
Atoll Res. Bull. 5: 1-56, 1951-

Summary of information on atoll soils.
Atoll Res. Bull. 22: 1-4, 195 3.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey

Tide tables 1958: Central and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.
Washington, Gvt. Printing Office, 1957-

-95-

APPENDIX I.

TABLE OF PLANT SPECIES BY ISLETS
F. R. Fosberg

The following table includes recent reports (from 1946 on) of
species known from Jaluit by islets, the 8 islets listed being the
ones definitely examined since 19I+6. There are various additional
earlier records of plants from the atoll, but mostly without record
as to the islet where they occurred.

Added in the last two columns are indications of origin and of
growth habit.

Sources

Origin

Habit

Fosberg

F

Native

I

Epiphytic herb

E

Mackenzie

M

Aboriginal
introduction

A

Terrestrial
erect herb

H

St. John

S

Naturalized

N

Creeper

C

Lyman

L

Cultivated

C

Climber

V

Unverified

X

or persisting

but probably

from cultivation

Shrub

s

present

Tree
Seedling

T
(s)

-96-

Plants

(X

>~3

«8

e

-3
O

c: %? e:

© O . O. (D O .

ti o : u o: »-. o :
o x: a) x: ox:.
«m Ont+j a «h p.:

:§
:£
:.-.ft

O. <D

u o: u
a> x: o

43 P- «H

n3 43: x>

o

G'

o

o.

x:

I

43-

su:

CD

ft

o

•-3

3

a.

a,

CO
M

after typhoon

53
o

c

«H
•H

o

■8

Aspleniura

nidus

: X

: F

: FS

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: EH

Nephrolepis
acutifolia

: FS

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: E

Nephrolepis
biserrata
var. fur cans

: M

: C

: H

Nephrolepis
hirsutula

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: H

Polypodium
scolopendria

: FS

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: ECH

Pteris
tripartita

: FS

: F

: F

: I

: H

Vittaria
incurvata

: FS

: F

: F

: I

: E

Cycas
circinalis

: L

: F

: C

: ST

Pandanus
tectorius

: M

: F

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: CIA

: T

Thalassia
hemprichii

: F

: I

: C

Cenchrus
echinatus

- F

: F

: F

: F

: N

: H

Cynodon
dactylon

: F

• N

: C

Digitaria ;
pruriens var.-
microbachne ■

F

: F

. S

F

F

. f

: F

: F

! I?

: H

Echinochloa
crus-galli

F

N?

H

Eleusine :
indica

F

F

S :

F :

F

F

F !

F

N

H

Eragrostis :
amabilis

F

F :

S :

F :

F !

F :

F :

N :

H

Lepturus :
repens vars . :

F :

F :

X :

F !

X :

F :

F :

F :

F :

F :

F :

I :

HC

Paspalum :
conjugatum ;

1

t

•

■

F :

N :

HC

-97-

Plants

before
typhoon JABOR

o

s
p

o

. h o

:££

; CTJ -P

•
•

c

• 0) o

. u o

• o jC

i a> K

; X> -p

IMROJ
after
typhoon

. o

• o

. JG

:ft

• -p

: <r>

• o

. «M

• 0)

. X)

MEJATTO

after typhoon

: e: a

. 5 . M
' 3 * °*

after

M

byphoon

c

•H
•H

• o

: -P

•H
• £>

Paspalum
distichum

: F

: N

: HC

Sorghum
bicolor

: F

: F

: S

: N

: H

Thuarea
involuta

: P

: F

: SX

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: C

Cyperus
alternifolius

: M

: C

: H

Cyperus
compressus

: F

: N

: H

Cyperus
javanicus

: F

: F

: F

F

: I

: H

Cyperus
kyllingia

i F

: F

: w

: H

Cyperus
odoratus

. F

I

H

Cyperus
rotundus

X

F

N

: H

Eleocharis

F •

IA

H

geniculata :

Fimbristylis :
cymosa

F

: F

XS

• F

X

F

F

: F

F

I

H

Cocos :
nucifera :

F

. p

XS

F

X •

F

F

F

F

F

F

AC

T

Elais
guineenis

M :

C

T

Phoenix :
canariensis ? •

M

C :

T

Pritchardia :

M :

C

T

pacifica :

Alocasia :
roacrorrhiza :

M :

F :

FS

F

X :

F '

F !

F :

F :

A

H

Colocasia :
esculenta :

F :

F :

AC :

H

Cyrtosperma :
chamissonis :

S :

F :

AC :

H

Epipremnum :
pinnatum

M :

F :

N :

V

Scindapsus :
aureus :

L :

F :

N :

V

-98-

Plants

p=!
o

PQ

c

<D o
• u o

O £1

<h a,
£) -p

<5
B

:"§

: ^ o

<u xt

; n3 -P

before
typhoon

1MKUJ

after
typhoon

<

: o
o

: -c

t -p

: fe
o

: *-•
: -°

g

13 §

^S O

§ e

: -p

KIN A JON

S w

■ 5 • M

: 3: *

after -

: : 5z
§ 2

; ; i—l

byphoon

: c

■ no

! °

: -p

. *H
• X*

. nj

Xanthosoma
sagittifolia

: X

: F

: F

: F

: C

: H

Rhoeo
spathacea

: M

: F

: C

: H

Agave
sisalana

: X

: F

: C

: H

Cordyline
terminalis

: L

: F

: C

: S

Sansevieria
roxburghii?

L

: F

: C

: H

Crinum
asiaticum?

M

: F

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: CA

: H

Hippeastrum :
puniceum

. F

, F

: C

: H

Hymenocallis
littoralis

M

: F

: F

. F

: F

: C

: H

Zephyr an the s ,
rosea

X

: F

X

F

F

F

C

: H

Dioscorea sp. ,

S

: A

V

Tacca
leontopeta-
loides

M

FS

F

: X :

F

. F

F .

F

. A

: H

Musa nana

S :

F

, ■> ,

: C

. H

Musa :
sapientum

M

F

: S :

F

F

F

C

H

Canna indica? •

L

?

c

H

Peperomia :

X

F :

N !

H

pellucida

Peperomia :

F

F

I '

H

ponapensis

Casuarina
equisetifolia-

L •

F

C ;

T

Artocarpus :
altilis (incL:
A-raariannensi£

F

: F

FS

F

F :

F ■

F :

F :

F :

AC !

T

Ficue :
elastica

F

. F

C :

T

Ficus
tinctoria

X

F

C :

T

-99-

Plants

before
typhoon JA30R

if
o

B

co
: c
o
: u o

g V XI

•
•

: c

CD o

: u o

o x:

» 0) ^j

: x> -p

" IMROJ

after
typhoon

c

: o
o

: ^

: &
-p

* CD

: *■<
o

: <*
: *o

MEJATTO

after typhoon

: s

o
• <-i
' <c
: s

M

: «

: a : p*

• M . 13

' az ' s

• 5 • M

• -D * (X,

: ^ •

; s ;
after ■

s ' o

: g : B

M -3

Pi ' M

typhoon

. to

•H

' o

: s

• x>

Fleurya
ruderalis

: F

: F

: F

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: H

Pilea
microphylla

: F

: F

: S

: F

: N

: II

Pipturus
argenteus

: FS

: F(s)

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: ST

Procris
pedunculata

: F

: I

: HE

Coccoloba

uvifera

: M

: C

: S

Boerhavia
tetrandra

: F

: I

: C

Bougainvillea
glabra

• M

: C

: V

Bougainvillea
spectabilis

. M

- ?

■ »

: C

: V

Mirabilis
jalapa

F

: FS

: F

F

: CM

: H

Pisonia
grandis

FS :

X

• F

F

: F

F

F

: I

T

Amaranthus :
viridis

F

F '

N

: H

Celosia :

ar gen tea :

FS :

C !

! H

Gomphrena :
globosa :

F

F :

C

H

Portulaca :
oleracea ;

F :

F :

F :

F :

F :

• F :

N :

H

Cassytha :
filiformis :

F :

F :

F :

F :

F :

I :

VC

Hernandia :
sonora

X :

F :

F :

F :

F :

I :

T

Brassica :
acanthif ormis :

M :

C :

H

Nasturtium :
sarmentosum :

F :

I?1 T :

H

Kalanchoe :
pinnata :

FS :

F :

F :

N :

H

Albizia :
lebbek :

M :

C :

T

-100-

Plants

«

o
cq <*

<;

C

Q) O

u o

O XI

<H ft

X> -P

o

i w '

B

o

>u o

d) Xi

-p ft

before
typhoon

±i v iitu«J
after
typhoon

<

C 1
. O 1

o

. x:

■ ft

■ -p

1 0)
. f-,

• o

■ Q>

: -

D

■-\

-o O

a &

. -p

0)

. -p

•-a

: g

' M

H . g . O . Q

(« • S • PQ • pi
5 . H . H . W

S : : : 3
after typhocn

- c

•H
U

, o

, Xi

■ ctf

Canavalia
microcarpa

F

: F

: F

: F

:F(s)

: F(s)

: I

: V

Caesalpinia
pulcherrima

FS

: C

: S

Cassia
occidentalis

: F

: C

: H

Crotalaria
incana

. F

: F

: N

: H

Delonix
regia

: M

: F

: C

: T

Erythrina
variegata var.
orientalis

M

: F

: C

: T

Inocarpus

: M

: F

: C

: T

fagiferus

Intsia

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: T

bijuga

Leucaena

, L

: F

?

: N

: S

glauca

Samanea
saman

X

! X

: C

: T

Sophora

: F

: I

: S

tomentosa

Vigna
marina

. X

F

• FS

. F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F(s)

: F(s)

: I

: CV

Citrus

aurantifolia

M

: F

F

! F

: C

: S

Citrus
maxima

M

: C

: S

Citrus
sinensis

M

M

C

: S

Citrus
reticulata

M

C

S

Acalypha :
wilkes iana

M !

F

F !

C :

S

Codiaeum

F :

C

s

variegatum

Euphorbia

F :

F :

I :

H

chamissonis

Euphorbia
glomerifera j

F

F !

N :

C

-101-

Plants

: g

<

: c

a; o

: u o

O jC

: «h p.
: £> -p

6 :

u E-

# >n :

w

53 :
Q

>-• :

CO

: a c

O D o

: u o: u o
a> xS o x:

: £ g^ e

•"5

o

H

: g

: u o

: £g

: aJ -P

c
: o

o
: x:

: &
■p

o

MEJATTO
after tvnhoon

KIM JON

: 2 : o-
: |: 3

5 53

: *■» : m
after '

1 s : §
: S : @

M -3

: « : m
byphoon

: c

•H

: m

•H

: u
o

, -p

Euphorbia
hirta

:.F

: F

: F

: F

: N

: H

Euphorbia
prostrata

: F

: F

: N

: C

Euphorbia
pulcherrima

: M

: C

: S

Phyllanthus
amarus

: F

: F

: F

: F

: N

: C

Ricinus
communis

: M

: C

: s

Allophylus
timorensis

: F

: S

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: ST

Triumfetta
procumbens

: F

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F(s)

: I

: C

Hibiscus
esculentus

: M

: F

: C

: H

Hibiscus
mutabilis

: M

: C

: S

Hibiscus
tiliaceus

: X

: F

: FS

: F

: F

, IA

: ST

Sida fallax

: F

C

: S

Thespesia
populnea

: M

C

: T

Bombax
ellipticum

• M

C

: T

Ceiba
pentandra

, M

: F

F

C

: T

Calophyllum
inophyllum

X

F :

FS

: F

F

■ F

F

F

. F

F(s)

A :

T

Passiflora :
laurifolia :

M '

C

V

Carica :
papaya

M :

F

FS

F

F :

F

F

CI! !

ST

Citrullus :
vulgaris

M :

C '

C

Cucumis ;
sativus :

M :

C :

c

Cucurbita :
maxima :

F? :

F :

F? :

F?

F :

C :

c

Cucurbita :
pepo :

M :

S :

C :

c

-102-

Plants

'• o

: S : P

, m «8 g

: ** e

. ® O. Q

: u & u o
, P -^ v -6

before
typhoon

1MKUJ

after
typhoon

! c

! O

o

0)

: u
o

: «h
o>

: .o

o

3 S

H o

' -P

: u

: a

1

' 5 ' 53

. £3 . ^
after

: 8 : §
. . *-*

byphoon

: c

•H

: no

•H

: u
, o

1 3

Pemphis
acidula

: F

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: ST

Sonneratia
alba

: F

! I

: T

Bruguiera
gymnorhiza

: F

: F

: F

i x

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: T

Lumnitzera
littorea

: F

: I

: T

Terminalia
catappa

: N

: F

: X

: F

: A

: T

Terminalia
samoensis

: FS

: X

: F

; F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: S

Barringtonia
asiatica

: FS

: F

: X

: F

: F(s)

: F(s)

t I

: T

Mioonia sp . ?

: M

: C

: S

Brassaia
actinophylla'

: M

: F

: C

: T

Polyscias
fruticosa

: M

: C

I s

Polyscias
guilfoylei •

' L

: S

: C

: S

Polyscias
Scutellaria :

: S -

: F

: C

: S

Polyscias
tricochleata

• F

: C

: S

Centella

asiatica

FS

: F

F

F

: A

: C

Jasminum i
sambac

F

C

! S

Catharanthus j
roseus

F

C

: H

Cerbera
manghas

M '

F

c

T

Nerium
indicum

F

? :

c •

S

Nerium
oleander

F ■

? :

C :

S

Ochrosia j
oppositifolia:

F :

F :

I :

T

Plumeria
rubra :

M !

FS :

F !

F :

F :

F :

C :

ST

-103-

Plants : ^
: c

<D O

: ^ o

. J° ^

: «h q,

• £ K

o :

Eh

H :
s :
S :
: w fi a

Q <D O

: k c u o

<i> S. O XJ

. Ctf 4? X) 4>

IMROJ
after
typhoon

: o

o

: x:

: ft
, +»

ID

o

: «m

: x>

o

'C c

< o

"3 O

a x:

^ ft
: 4>

: u
: co

<
■ ft

| MAJURIREK
PINLEP

: E : E

: a : g

: « : -a

M

: : ^
typhoon

c
: in

fab
: -h

: o

! -P

: x»

cU

: a:

Asclepias :
curassavica :

: F

: F

: C

: H

Ipomoea :
batatas :

: F

: C

: C

Ipomoea :
littoralis

: F

: FS

: F

: I

: C

Ipomoea : F
pes-caprae :

: F

: F(s)

NI?

: C

Ipomoea : F
tuba :

: F

: S

: F

: I

: c

Cordia : F
subcordata :

: F

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

. T

Tournefortia : F
argentea :

: F

: XS

F

: X

: F

: F

: F

■ F

: F

: F

: I :

TS

Clerodendrum : X
inerme

: F

: F

F

: F

• I

s

Lantana : M
camara :

C

s

Premna : X
obtusifolia :

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

I

T

Stachytarpheta: F
urticlfolia :

: F

N

II

Ocimum :
sanctum :

FS

F

AC

H

Nicotiana : F
tabacum :

S .

C

H

Physalis : F
angulata :

F

'"f

F

. F

F

N ,

H

Solanum :
nigrum :

F

F :

K '

H

Jacaranda : M
filicifolia :

C :

T

Be lope rone : M :
guttata :

C :

S

Blechum . : t 1
brovnei :

F

N :

H

Hemigraphis : :
reptans : :

F :

N :

C

Pseuderanthemum X :
carruthersii v. :
carruthersii:

F :

F :

F :

F :

C :

s

-10U-

Plants :

s

PQ Q,

<

>"3

<u o'

SB

^ -p;

jh *
$ m :

B

before
typhoon

IMROJ
after

typhoon

d
o
o
jG

fe

-P

<u :

u •

O '
<D '

MEJATTO
after typhoon

53 :

O '

■-a ■

Pi . ^ 9 '9

M . J . PQ . pd
p=5 • js • M ' W
5 . H . tf -3
•"3 * Pu ' ' M

after typhoon ;

no ■

•H '
Jh .
O '

-p

•H

Pseuderanthemum X :
carruthersii v :
atropurpureum:

F ;

FS :

F

x :

F :

F :

F

C

! S

Dentella
repens

: M !

: F

: N

: C

Guettarda
speciosa

F

Xfc :

F

: X

. F

F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: T

Hedyotis
biflora

: F

! FS

: F

: F

: IN

: C

Ixora casei

: S .

: C

: S

Ixora fraseri

: M

: C

: S

Morinda
citrifolia

: F

: F

: XS

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: ST

Hippobroma
longi flora

: F

: N

: H

Scaevola
sericea

: F

: F

: XS

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

! S

Adenostemma
lavenia

: FS

: F

: A

: H

Ageratum
cony zo ides

: F

: N

: H

C ichor ium
endivium

: M

: C

: H

Spilanthes
iabadicensis

: M

: N

: H

Synedrella
nodiflora

: F

: F

: F

: N

: H

Tagetes sp.

: F

: C

: H

Vernonia
cinerea

: F

: FS

: F

: F

: F

: N

: H

Wedelia
biflora

! F

: F

: XS

: F

: X

: F

: F

: F

: F

: F

: I

: CHV

-105-

APPENDIX II

GASTROPOD MULLUSCS COLLECTED BY J. L. GRESSITT
List prepared "by Yoshio Kondo

Turbinidae
Neritidae
Nassariidae
Planaxidae

Marine species
Turbo argyrostomus L-? --Mejatto (2 specimens)
Nerita plicata L. — Mejatto (1 spm. ) .
Nass a rius cf . papillosus L. — Mejatto.
Planaxis sulcatus Born ? ---Lijeron

Realidae

Assimineidae
Truncatellidae

Melaniidae
Ellobiidae
Tornatellinidae

Pupillidae

Stenogyridae
Zonitidae

Land species

Qmphalotropis fragili s Pease — Imroj (1 dead); Jabor
(1 dead juvenile, probably this sp., Bernese
j unnel from Pandanus ) .

Ass '" line a nitida Pease — Jabor (l dead, Berlese
funnel from Pandanus ) ; Imroj (2 dead).

Truncatella guerini Villa — Jabor (l6 live; 1 dead
juvenile in Berlese funnel may be this sp.);
Imroj (k dead).

Melania sp. — Pinlep (5 dead; fresh or brackish water).

Melampus luteus Quoy & Gaimard — Imroj (2 dead; littoral)

Tornatellinops variabilis Odhner --Kinajon (about
150 live and 3 dead)

Gastrocopta pediculus Shuttlevorth --Jabor (1 dead >
Bernese funnel from Pandanus ) ; Imroj (1 dead).

Lamellaxis oparanum Pfeiffer — Jabor (1 dead).

Liardetia sp.? — Jabor (1 dead juvenile, obtained
from Berlese funnel, in Pandanus ) .

a. Ridge of boulder gravel thrown
up on reef flat. Jabor I.
(Fosberg photo).

b. Same ridge, close-up show-
ing imbrication of slab-like
boulders of coral, principal-
ly Acropora sp.
(Fosberg photo).

Aerial view of Sydneytown
area showing large tank sur-
rounded by rubble embank-
ment covered by vegetation
and two smaller tanks which
have been moved by the storm
waves from the two circular
foundations visible just be-
yond the farther tank. Scour
channel across reef to left of
nearer small tank.
(Gressitt photo).

Large boulder resting on
lagoon bar, Jaluit Islet, 3000
feet north of Blockhouse No.
4. The white upper half and
stained lower half suggest
that it has been overturned,
that the white half was pre-
viously buried, the stained
half exposed. The board
leaning against it is 2 feet
long. (Wiens photo).

Plate I

*&.**

a. Eroded beach rock ridge with
depression landward of it,
boulder gravel ridge on reef
in background, Jaluit Islet
south of Jabor. (Wiens photo).

b. Scour channel cut through
about 4 feet of conglomerate
rock, displaced tank and
typhoon-battered vegetation
in background; near Sydney-
town. (Wiens photo).

■ ■■'"'■ \ . i I \

*KW<

■-*■

. :\. ■ -'V

c. Scour pit, showing extensive
exposure of root systems,
battered Pandanus and coco-
nut trees, gravel sheet in
background, some original
soil surface in right fore-
ground; Mejatto, south of
"Station 4". (Wiens photo).

d. Root masses of coconut and
Pandanus trees; the height of
these (about 5 feet) suggests
that a very substantial thick-
ness of soil has been scoured
away in the foreground; about
3000 feet from north end of
Mejatto. (Wiens photo).

Plate II

a. Pemphis partly washed out and
partly buried by gravel sheet;
Jaluit I. about 1000 feet north
of steel towers. (Wiens photo).

b. Lagoonward front of gravel
sheet; just south of Jabor.
(Wiens photo).

&

<■■■

*4 -

Lagoonward front of gravel
sheet encroaching on small
mangrove depression and
partly filling it in; Mejatto I.
(Wiens photo).

d. Another such depression,
partly filled by gravel sheet;
Mejatto I. (Wiens photo).

Plate III

a. Path in coconut-breadfruit
plantation before typhoon
OPHEUA; Mejatto I. (Fos-
berg photo, 1946).

c. Opening in coconut plantation,
Pandanus tree in center; Me-
jatto I. (Fosberg photo, 1946).

b. Opening in coconut-breadfruit
plantation, breadfruit tree in
center, before typhoon OPHELIA;
Mejatto I. (Fosberg photo, 1946).

»

Mangrove depression, partly
cleared by typhoon OPHELIA,
showing Bruguiera trees bare
of leaves above, accumulated
vegetable debris in foreground;
Mejatto I. (Fosberg photo).

Plate IV

a. Marshallese thatched house,
surrounded by Pandanus trees,
before typhoon OPHELIA; Me-
jatto I. (Fosberg photo, 1946).

b. Area with vegetation and loose
material completely scoured
off; South of Jabor. (Fosberg
photo).

r

-

\<?

%£+_. ' f(H • *Wfct:

c. Trash thrown into mangrove
depression; Bruguiera in back-
ground beaten down; Mejatto I.
(Fosberg photo).

d. Coconut trees snapped off by
typhoon OPHELIA; Mejatto I.
(Fosberg photo).

Plate V

a. Uprooted breadfruit and coco-
nut trees, broken Pandanus,
battered coconut plantation.
(Gressitt photo).

Partially uprooted young coco-
nut tree and snapped coconut
trunk in destroyed coconut plan-
tation. (Gressitt photo).

/Tiflr/

jr. _> - -. "_«5Sk<E!t5ou

c. Battered but still standing
Barringtonia (?), Pandanus ,
and coconut trees, snapped off
coconut trunks. (Gressitt
photo).

d. Vegetable debris on wave-swept
ground, north of Sydneytown;
old tank in background.
(Gressitt photo).

Plate VI

m

■5 iT""**** "*"

a. Coconut and Pandanus root sys-
tems exposed by removal of
soil, base of snapped-off Pan-
danus and snapped off coconut
trunks in battered coconut
plantation. (Gressitt photo).

b. Partially buried vegetation,
broken Pandanus and other
trees, battered coconut planta-
tion. (Gressitt photo).

c. Coconut trunks fallen in several
directions; Imroj I.
(Fosberg photo).

d. Area hit by wind only, showing
broken Pandanus and coconut
trees, but relatively undis-
turbed ground vegetation; Pin-
lep I. (Fosberg photo).

Plate VII

a.

Breadfruit tree damaged by wind,
broken Pandanus and coconut
trees in background, relatively
undamaged ground vegetation,
area affected by wind only; south-
east end of Imroj I. (Fosberg
photo).

■

m i w

c. Pemphis clump with small

branches stripped off but sprout-
ing abundant new twigs and leaves;
just south of Jabor. (Wiens photo).

Breadfruit tree with branches
stripped off by wind, sending
out sprouts with new leaves,
ground vegetation of Wedelia
favored by increased sun light
resulting from typhoon damage
to other vegetation, area not in-
undated; Pinlep I. (Fosberg photo).

d. Phosphate boulders, part of
bed discovered during this in-
vestigation; northwest end of
Imroj I. (Fosberg photo).

Plate VIII

v,

a. Broken off Pemphis bushes on
conglomerate platform on
lagoon shore south of Sydney-
town. (Fosberg photo).

b. Taro pit, with Cyrtosperma

tops killed by typhoon but
otherwise not seriously
damaged; Pinlep I. (Fosberg
photo).

c. Coconut plantation in unin-

undated area, showing damage
by wind alone; Pinlep I.
(Fosberg photo).

d. Coconut plantation damaged
by wind and waves, many
trees snapped off, some up-
rooted, root systems ex-
posed, gravel deposited on
soil; showing Marshallese
inhabitants. (Gressitt photo).

Plate IX

a. Coconut plantation destroyed
by wind and waves; Mejatto I.
(Wiens photo).

b. Inner margin of fresh gravel
sheet; Mejatto I. (Fosberg
photo).

c. P and anus grove destroyed by
wind; Majurirek I. (Fosberg
photo).

d. Pisonia forest battered by

wind, but sprouting vigorous-
ly; Lijeron I. (Fosberg photo).

Plate X

Nos. 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84

December 31, 1961

ATOLL RESEARCH
BULLETIN

76. Observations on Puluwat and Gaferut, Caroline Islands

by William A. Niering

Historical and climatic information on Gaferut Island
by Marie-Helene Sachet

77. A check list of marine algae from Ifaluk Atoll, Caroline Islands

by Isabella A. Abbott

78. Narrative report of botanical field work on Kure Island,
3 October 1959 to 9 October 1959

by Horace F. Clay

79. Botanical observations on Leeward Hawaiian Atolls

by Charles H. Lamoureux

80. The tropical coral reef as a biotope

by Sebastian A. Gerlach

81. Qualitative description of the coral atoll ecosystem

by F. R. Fosberg

82. Heron Island, Capricorn Group, Australia

by F. R. Fosberg, R. F. Thorne and J. M. Moulton

83. Notes on some of the Seychelles Islands, Indian Ocean

by C. J. Piggott

84. Atoll News and Comments

Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council
Washington, D.C., U.SA.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

76. Observations on Puluwat and Gaferut, Caroline Islands

by William A. Niering

with Historical and climatic information on Gaferut Island
"by Marie -Helene Sachet

77« A check list of marine algae from Ifaluk Atoll, Caroline Islands

"by Isabella A. Abbott

78. Narrative report of botanical field work on Kure Island,
3 October 1959 to 9 October 1959
by Horace F. Clay

79* Botanical observations on Leeward Hawaiian Atolls

by Charles H. Lamoureux

80. The tropical coral reef as a biotope

by Sebastian A. Gerlach

81. Qualitative description of the coral atcll ecosystem

by F. R. Fosberg

82. Heron Island, Capricorn Group, Australia

by F. R. Fosberg, R. F. Thome and J. M. Moulton

83. Notes on some of the Seychelles Islands, Indian Ccean

by C. J. Piggott

Qk. Atoll News and Comments

Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council

Washington, D. C.
December 31, 1961

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office
of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of
which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll
Program of the Pacific Science Board.

It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda-
mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S.
Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago,
under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of
such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the
Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past fourteen years,

The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is
assisted by funds from Contract N7onr-2300(l2).

The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of
papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and they do not
necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of the
editors of the Bulletin.

Editorial Staff

F. R. Fosberg, editor

M. -H. Sachet, assistant editor

Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be
addressed to the above

c/o Pacific Vegetation Project
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W.
Washington 25, D. C, U. S. A.

Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any
purpose of the United States Government.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 76
Observations on Puluvat and Gaferut, Caroline Islands

by

William A. IJiering

with

Historical and climatic information on Gaferut Island

by Marie -Helene Sachet

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.

Observations on Puluwat and Gafemt, Caroline Islands

William A. Niering*
Introduction

Observations presented in this paper were made during the summer
of 195^ in conjunction with the Kapingamarangi £>rpedition to the Caroline
Islands . On the return route to Guam, several other island groups were
visited for purposes of comparison. Among these were Puluwat and Gaferut.

I. List of plants noted on Puluwat Islet, Fuluwat Atoll

The following species were recorded during a one -hour visit to
the islet on Sept. 3, 195^-

Allophylus timorensis Bl.
Occasional in undergrowth.

Artocarpus altilis (Park. ) Fosb.

Scattered in interior. Coll. no. 7&5 •

Asplenium nidus L.

Women observed carrying leaves, growing plants not seen.

Calophyllum inophyllum L.

Large trees along lagoon shore.

Canavalia sericea Gray

Frequent in forested and semi -open areas. Coll. no. 7^9'

Carica papay a L. . . .

Frequent around houses.

Cassytha filiformis L.

Occasional on undergrowth

Cocos nucifera L.

Trees scattered forming open plantations, also young plantings.

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Scholt
Important food species.

* Department of Botany, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut.
Sponsored by the Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences--
National Research Council, and supported by the Office of Naval Research,

#~*

- 2 -

Cordia sub cor data Lam.

Large specimens along lagoon beach.

Crinum sp.

Profusely flower ing along paths.

Cucurbit a sp.

Large productive squash in lining area.

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Frequent in open disturbed sites. Coll. no. 771-

Euphorbia chamissonis Boiss.

Occasional along sandy lagoon beach. Coll. no. 770*

Ficus prolixa Forst.
Coll. no. 767-

F. tinctori a var. neo-ebudaru m (Summ. ) Fosb.
Coll. no. 766. ~

Guettarda speciosa L.

Occasional in interior.

Hedyotis biflora (L.) Lam.
Coll. no. 762.

Hibiscus tiliaceus L.

Occasional in understory.

Hymenocalii s littorali s ( Jacq. ) Salisb.
Coll. no. 772.

Ixora sp.

Red flowered ornamental around houses.

Lepturus repens R. Br.

Occasional in disturbed sandy areas.

Messerschmidia argentea (L.f. ) Johnst.
Mixed with Scaevola along ocean beach.

Morinda citrifolia L.

Occasional as understory tree.

Musa sp.

Frequent around houses.

Nephrolepis h irsutul a (Forst. ) Pre si

Dominant fern in coconut plantations often forming a dense
ground cover 2-3 feet high.

Pandanus tectorius Park.

Frequent, often more common oceanward.

- 3 -

Paspalum conjugatum Berg.

Occasional in open disturbed areas. Coll. no. 7&3»

Piper betle L. ?
Coll. no. 768.

P. fragile Benth. ?
Coll. no. 76k,

Plumeria rubra L.

Occasional in living area.

Polypodium scolopendria Burm. f .

Frequent on trees, often associated with Ifephrol epis .

Portulaca sp.

Yellow flowering form, frequent along and in paths.

Premna obtusifolia R. Br.
Dominant in undergrowth.

Scaevola sericea Vahl

Frequent as a border along beaches.

Stenotaphrum micranthum (Desv. ) Hubb.

Frequent in recently cleared areas planted to coconut.

Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrb.) Aschers.

Frequent in shallow sandy lagoon waters.

Thuarea involu ta (Forst. ) R. & S.

Frequent in recently cleared areas planted to coconut.

Triumfetta procumbens Forst.
Occasional along ocean beach.

Vernon ia cinerea (L.) Less.
Weed of open areas.

Wedelia biflora (L.) BC.
Frequent in undergrowth.

Mangrove

Present along south lagoon cove (genus not determined).

- 5 -
II . Description of Gaferut Island

Gaferut Island, an isolated land mass in the northern Carolines,
was observed during a brief stop on the morning of Sept. k, 195^*. The
island is approximately 1,500 feet long and 500 feet wide, situated on
a somewhat crescent-shaped reef which extends 500-750 feet outward from
mean tide level. Gaferut is at present uninhabited, but the Japanese
mined phosphatic rock there around 1935* Remnants of their buildings,
clearings and excavations can still be seen. About an acre in the inter-
ior, although now overgrown, shows evidence of being cleared. In at
least four areas excavations were observed, the most extensive being a
trench about 2 feet in depth and of considerable width. The other areas
within the clearing were quite small.

Geology and Soils

Geologically the island is composed of three types of material:
phosphatic rock, coral rubble and sand. The higher interior portion
is underlain by phosphatic rock which gives way to a marginal coral
rubble border 100 feet or more in width on the east and southeast sides.
Along the western shoreline high step -like beach ridges composed of rubble
extend 6 feet or more above mean tide level. The sandy deposits form a
conspicuous elongated bar extending in a northwesterly direction. Hear
the end of the sand bar is a very large coral boulder which was probably
perched there during a severe storm. These various areas are readily
discernable on the aerial photograph (Fig. l).

The interior phosphatic rock is either exposed, except for black-
ish algal or fecal coverings, or overlain with a thin rubble soil or
humus layer. Several inches of rubble mixed with organic matter are
typical. However, in the largest clearing rubble is absent and the rock
is overlain by a dark brown friable acid humus (pH 5) varying from 2 to
3 inches in depth. In one area within but near the edge of the clearing
it was found to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. These variations in depth
may be correlated with the disturbance. One sample from this area con-
tained large quantities of small gastropod shells. Eeneath the humus the
underlying rock consisted of cemented coral fragments, sand and foramin-
iferal tests, whereas those from the trench consisted primarily of
larger rubble. In both cases the material was similar in that it exhib-
ited a brownish salt and pepper appearance and was relatively soft so
that it could be easily broken with one's fingers. In the trench the
rock was exposed for at least 2 feet in depth with no evidence of an
unconsolidated layer beneath. The humus layer and underlying phosphatic
rock have all the characteristics of the Jemo Series named and described
by Fosberg (195*0 and observed by other investigators (Hatheway 1953j
Niering 195&, McKee 1956). Further discussion concerning the possible
origin of the rock will follow in a later section.

* The author wishes to acknowledge the most helpful suggestions of Dr.
F. Raymond Fosberg and Miss Marie-He'ldne Sachet in preparation of
this manuscript.

- 6 -

Vegetation and Associated Animal Life

The general vegetations! aspect is that of a low, relatively open
forest , 12 to 25 feet in height. The dominant tree which characterizes
the island is Toi.irnefortia argentea , rather than the coconut which is
so typical of inhabited islands. Only two mature coconut trees ( Cocos
nucifera ) 50 to 60 feet in height, probably planted within the last 10
years, were found. The only other woody plant observed was Caesalpinia
sp., and it was unimportant. On the phosphatic rock of the interior which
has been least disturbed the trees are relatively large and frequently
form a continuous but open canopy, in contrast to the marginal rubble
borders where the trees are smaller and more scattered. On this coarse
marginal rubble the Tournefortia frequently exhibit a shrubby dome -like
appearance with branches extending to the ground. In the rubble areas
the trees reach 6 to 10 inches in diameter and in the interior sections
attain diameters of 12 to 18 inches. The dominant ground cover is
Fleurya ruderalis which forms a continuous layer 12 to 18 inches in
height in the openings and decreases slightly in the semi -open situations.
Several specimens of a cucurbit ( Cucurbita sp. ) also occurred locally.

Associated with the Tournefortia community is a large bird popula-
tion including frigate birds ( Fregata mi nor palxaerstoni ), red footed
boobies ( Sula s ula rubripes ), and white terns' ( Gygis alba Candida ) . Of
these the frigate birds are most abundant. Their nests and immature
specimens were conspicuous in the trees. At all times the air was filled
with the din of hundreds of birds in constant flight. From a kodachrcme
taken over the island an estimated 550 birds were counted. While walking
through the interior one had to be careful of these large birds since one
could easily have been hit as they lost altitude on the take-off. Under
those trees with many nests the stench was very pronounced and the ab-
sence of Fleurya may be correlated with the concentration of guano. It
was truly amazing to see such great numbers of birds but presumably this
is not atypical of certain uninhabited islands. Pokak, an uninhabited
atoll in the Marshails, is quite similar not only in its large bird pop-
ulation but also in its sparse flora (Fosberg 1957)* Here 9 species of
vascular plants were found in contrast to 7 on Gaferut.

Associated with the coconut were azure -tailed skinks ( Emoia cyanura
cyanura ) and coconut crabs ( Birgus latro ). The former were especially
abundant in the trees; the latter were found under the fronds on the
ground as well as within the nearby herbaceous cover. The largest crabs,
one foot or longer, were in the cavities of the rock. Although ten nuts
had sprouted under the trees they were partly chewed and the 1 to 2 foot
shoots were badly damaged, ■v'hether they will survive is questionable.
Other animal life observed included hermit crabs and in the branches of
the Tournefortia orb -weaving spiders were common.

In the large clearing toward the south end of the island dense ;..• ■
growths of Ipomoea tuba cover most of the opening and are invading the
surrounding Tournefortia and forming a complete covering over the trees.
Several have already been killed as a result of this invasion. Infesting
this viny growth was a caterpillar which develops into a whitish Lepidop-
teran. Leaves not damaged by this infestation were difficult to find.
Another herb found locally in the clearing was Boerhavia diffusa , both
the pink and white forms.

- 7 -

At the north end of the island most of the sand "bar is devoid of
vegetation. However, small Toumefurtia are becoming conspicuously
established at the south end of the tar. In this sector sea turtle
activity was evidenced by the many excavations in the exposed beach
sand. Also along the shore a flock of 12 to 15 turn stones ( Arenaria
interpres interpres ) were seen as well as several plovers in flight.

Discussion

The origin of the phosphatic rock is of considerable interest in
that it resembles the Jemo Series. The A (humus) and B (rock layer)
horizons are comparable but the less consolidated C horizon was not found.
Although the greatest depth reported elsewhere for the cemented B layer
is l|- feet, from Jemo Island, this may merely indicate that cementation
on Gaferut has taken place to a greater depth. To be associated with
the Jemo Series infers a dual biotic relationship only one component
of which currently exists on Gaferut - namely, a large bird population.
The other facet - a Pisonia forest, is wanting. Could there have been
a Pisonia forest in the past - the soil forming processes operative for
a long period resulting in the formation of the phosphatic rock and then
the forest destroyed by a typhoon? (See section on climate below). De-
nudation of islands resulting from typhoons has also been reported from
Ailinginae and Utirik Atolls in the northern Marshalls (Fosberg 1956) and
most recently by Blumenstock (1958) and Fosberg (1961) on Jaluit Atoll
in the Marshalls. The small very intensive typhoon which hit Jaluit
completely removed the vegetation on the narrower parts of certain islets.
Many trees were uprooted or snapped off and washed away. Large Pisonia
trees were uprooted, and others still standing had many branches blown
off and were greatly defoliated. During the height of the storm wave
surges 6 feet in height and locally more than 8 feet swept over the is-
lets accompanied by winds approaching 125 knots (Blumenstock 195^).
From these observations it is not unreasonable to assume that a Pisonia
forest could have been destroyed on Gaferut (see note onp.l3;« Surely
the very soft nature of the wood would lend itself to tremendous storm
damage. Although persisting root systems would tend to produce vigorous
root suckers prolonged salt water inundation might well have killed any
remaining root systems which were not completely washed away. A small
isolated island such as this one would be particularly vulnerable to heavy
damage since it would get the full impact of the storm regardless of the
direction from which it came. That a severe storm has hit Gaferut is
evidenced by a large coral boulder off the north end of the island. Wiens
(1959) observed large blocks of this type on Jaluit which were washed 100-
300 feet during the typhoon. In addition, the extensively developed mar-
ginal rubble border along the east and south sides of the island and the
high beach ridges on the west may well have been laid down during such a
storm. The fact that phosphatic rock formation does not appear to be
occurring at present and has never been reported under Tournefertia sug-
gests that it occurred under a different vegetation type presumably
Pisonia grandis .

Although the idea that a severe storm may have destroyed the Pisonia
forest is most tenable, its removal by man in clearing the land to facil-
itate the mining of phosphate is another possibility.

- 8 -

Deleterious effects of the existing bird population were not
strikingly evident as has "been observed by Hatheway (1955) cm Canton
Island, where he found dead and dying Tournefortia, presumably associ-
ated with the concentrated guano deposits; this is probably correlated
with the drier climate of Canton Island in contrast to Gaferut. On
Gaferut the larger trees heavily used by birds were not as vigorous in
appearance as those in other areas but no dead trees were noted resulting
from this factor. However, as mentioned above, the spars ity of herbaceous
cover and seedling reproduction may be correlated with excessive guano.
Periodic visits by natives may also play some role in reducing the bird
population, but their present density would suggest that this influence
is negligible.

In interpreting future trends within the existing vegetation it
appears that Tournefortia will probably persist as the typical vegetation
for some time since there are no other competitive species available
which might replace it such as Pisonia or Ochrosia oppositifolia . Whether
or not adequate reproduction will occur to replace mature trees in the
future is questionable at this point. The two coconut palms that were
presumably planted do not appear to be spreading. In fact, the poor
vigor of the sprouted nuts as a result of coconut crab activity would
suggest that the palm will probably not become an important part of the
vegetation. This may well be a limiting factor in the establishment of
coconut, even if introduced, on uninhabited islands or those where the
coconut crab population is not kept in check. Since the crab is consid-
ered such a delicacy by the natives it presents no serious threat on
inhabited islands. Another species, Ipomoea tuba, must also be considered
since it has already engulfed and killed several Tournefortia . It is not
impossible to visualize this very aggressive and drought -resistant species
as eventually becoming dominant over an increasingly extensive portion of
the interior.

Summary

1. Gaferut, an uninhabited island in the northern Carolines, is dominated
by a low forest of Tournefortia a rgente a. Associated with this community
is a large bird population, primarily frigate birds and red footed boobies.

2. The underlying phosphatic rock resembles that of the Jemo Series.

Its presence suggests that formerly a Pisonia forest existed on the island
and has since been destroyed perhaps by a typhoon. A large coral boulder
perched on the reef is indicative of a severe storm in the past.

3« Tournefortia will probably persist as the dominant vegetation for
some time. The coconut palms, presumably planted, do not appear to be
spreading. Ipomoea tuba which has already killed several Tournefortia
may become increasingly important in the future.

- 9 -
Literature Cited

Blumenstock, David I.

Typhoon effects at Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
Nature 182: 1267-1269, 1958

Fosherg, F. R.

Soils of the Northern Marshall Atolls, with special reference to

the Jemo Series.

Soil Science 78(2): 99-107, 195^

Military geography of the Northern Marshalls.

Engineer Intelligence Dossier, Strategic Study-Marshall, Subfile

19 -Analysis of the Natural Environment, 1-320, 1956.

Lonely Pokak.

The Living Wilderness 22(62): 1-4, 1957.

Flora and vegetation, in: Elumenstock, D., ed. ,
A report on typhoon effects upon Jaluit Atoll.
Atoll Research Bull. 75: 51-55, 1961.

Ha the way, W, H.

The land vegetation of Arno Atoll Marshall Islands,
Atoll Research Bull, lo: 1-68, 1953.

The natural vegetation of Canton Island an equatorial Pacific atoll.
Atoll Research Bull. ^3: 1-9, 1955.

McKee, E.

Geology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands.
Atoll Research Bull. 50: I-38, 1956.

Niering, ¥. A.

Bioecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands, terrestrial

aspects.

Atoll Research Bull. ^9: 1-32, 1956.

Wiens, Herold J.

Atoll development and morphology.

Annals of the Assoc, of .1m. Geographers V?: 31-5*S 1959.

- 10 -

Fig. 1 Aerial view of Gaferut Island taken April 19^> 10 years prior
to the present observations. Light gray vegetation dominant
throughout is Tournefortia argentea . Rubble areas are evident,
demarcated by the scattered specimens of Tournefortia , especially
on the eastern and southern sides. On the phosphatic rock of the
interior, Tournefortia forms a somewhat circular pattern around
a uniform darker area which represents the section cleared for
phosphate digging. In 195^- the cleared area was dominated by
Ipomoea tuba. The sand bar building northwestward is devoid of
vegetation. If the coconuts were present at the time the photo
was taken, they were too small to be detected. There appears
to have been relatively little change in the vegetational pattern
in the 10 year period.

Photo courtesy of U. S. Navy.

- 11 -

Historical and climatic information on Gaferut Island

by

. Marie -Helene Sachet

In view of the scarcity of information on Gaferut, it seemed worth-
while to utilize the library resources of Washington in order to supple-
ment the valuable observations made by Dr. Hiering.

History

The real native name of Gaferut is Faiau, Fallao (Spanish spelling),
or Fayo (which means stone or rock in the Woleai language of nearby
islands). The name Gaferut is never included in the old lists of islands
of the Carolines, and, according to Smith (1951, p. 30), is never used
by local people. Charnisso (.1821, p. 115) relates how Carolinians from
Woleai, Lamotrek and other atolls went every spring (April) to Guam,
stopping on the way for several days at "Fayo, the desert island, :l and
returning in May or June by the same route. Riesenberg and Kaneshiro(l960,
p. 285) identify this stopping place as Gaferut. Charnisso also discusses
some of the early descriptions of these central Caroline atolls and in-
cludes a chart modified from Can to va (1728), in which our Gaferut is
obviously the island called Fauheu.

Of this island, Charnisso says also (p. 12*0 that it is uninhabited,
without fruit trees or fresh water, which only collects in pits after
rain, and that the inhabitants of near-by atolls visit it to collect
turtles and birds. Farther on (p. 196) he says that the god of the desert
island of Fajo is called Lage^ and (p. 205) he write s_: "On the desert
island of Fa jo, as at Bygar / Bikar in the Marshalls/, fresh water is
conjured into the water pits. There is a species of black -bird /probably
the frigate-bird, which was sacred on Sorol and Puluwat/ which is under
divine protection on this island, and not permitted to be eaten." Charnisso
had this information from his friend and informant, Kadu, a native of Woleai

What then was the real Gaferut? It was either an imaginary magic
island, or perhaps a former islet of a reef now devoid of dry land (cf.
legend of Ngaruangl in Gressitt 1953, P«2). According to Kramer (1937>
foot-note p. 3^6) Gaferudj is a name for S£pen, a former atoll near Yap;
Muller (1917, p. 30*J-) mentions that Sepin is a sunken magic island, cul-
turally linked to Rumung (northernmost island of Yap). All this might
explain why Senfft (1906, p. 2Qk) was told that Gaferut was a devil's
island and never visited by the Caroline people, who were afraid of it.
The report then would apply to the real Gaferut, rather than to the island
we now know under that name, and which Senfft visited (see below).

The confusion of names was recently clarified by Smith (1951> P-28)
who calls our Gaferut Fayaew (in his own system of phonetic spelling),
and adds (p, 29): "'Gaferut' in turn is a bastardization of a Yapese
name, even though Yap has only very remote concerns for that island."

- 12 -

Fayaew belongs to the Faraulep people. When the name Gaferut was first
applied (or misapplied) to the coral speck in 9°lVN, l45°23'E has not
been ascertained. The island is also called Grimes (Gurimesu-to in
Japanese) from Captain Grimes of the ship Jean (Findlay I87O, p. 766),
who discovered an . island in lat. 9°lb , N., long. l45°^3'E. He described
it as high and well-wooded, of 6 miles in circumference, so there is
possibly some confusion with some other island, perhaps Fais. Findlay
adds:" It has since been announced as High Island , at lat. 9°11'N., long.
1^5°45'E. ..." These names are generally considered as synonyms of Gaferut.

One of the few references to Gaferut in the literature is an account
of a visit by the German District Administrator of Yap, A. Senfft, in Dec.
1905. He described it (1906) as a flat sand bank, only locally reaching
a height of 2 meters. The only vegetation noted was "a species of man-
grove." Countless seabirds were nesting in the trees or on the flat ground.
Coconut crabs were also observed, and tracks of large sea-turtles. Senfft
also noted that a violent storm must have recently hit Gaferut, as most
trees had broken branches and some very large ones were completely up-
rooted. Later, a German expedition exploring for phosphate deposits is
said to have discovered phosphate on Gaferut (Aso 19^6, p. 117). According
to German sources (Sapper 191°) this expedition took place in 1907., not
in 1903 as reported in the translation of Aso. As a result of their dis-
coveries, the Germans started exploiting phosphate on Angaur, Peliliu
and later Fais, but never on Gaferut. However, the Japanese did mine
phosphate there, in spite of great transportation difficulties, starting
about 1937'

In addition to the phosphate workers, other Japanese visited Gaferut,
among them Yata Haneda, a mycologist interested in luminous fungi, who
mentions Gaferut and its phosphate in an account of his 1937 travels in
Micronesia (1939) • The distinguished geologist Risaburo Tayama apparently
also visited Gaferut, and he included a description of it, maps, sections
and a photograph in his volumes on coral reefs of Micronesia (1952). Pie
wrote (p. 262): "The table reef of Gaferut is a crude half circle with
the convex side facing east. The length of the arc is 1.1 km. Gaferut is
the only island on the reef. The shape of the island corresponds roughly
to that of the reef. The northern half of the island is chiefly sandy
and the southern half primarily gravelly. Recent limestone (Fig. 1C4)
emergent at low tide, is best exposed toward the western end where it
strikes northwest and dips 5 to 10 degrees to the southwest. Four recent
limestone ridges may be discriminated near the southern coast. The inner
ridges are of foraminiferal sandstone and the outer of coral conglomerate;
they strike East-West and dip 5 degrees. The central part of the island
is flat-topped and rises 5 meters above the reef-flat. The upper surface
is level and built of coral limestone (Fig. 105). This limestone is alter-
ing to phosphate ore; it conformably overlies a brown clay; and the brown
clay, in turn, conformably overlies a foraminiferal sandstone, and the
sandstone, the coral gravel and foraminiferal sand bed.

"The reef -flat is extremely wide on the northwest side. The inner
zone of the reef-flat is not exposed at low tide, and is dotted with
shallow pools about 0.5 meters deep. Seaweeds are growing over the reef
floor, and mushroom rocks, 2.5 to 3 meters high, are standing here, and
there . "

- 13 -

Tayama' s fig. 103 (p. 116) is a small-scale sketch map with bathy-
metric contours, and giving 2.7 m as the height of a rock on the IIW reef.
Fig. 104 (also ihG) is a profile of the east coast, from the reef front
to the bedded phosphatic rock of the interior, showing a mushroom rock,
beach-rock ("recent limestone"), beach sand and gravel between the reef
and the phosphate platform. The height of the latter is shown as 5 m
above low tide. Fig. 105 is a "Columnar section of beds exposed in pit
on Gaferut Island, Gaferut Table Reef," including:
"a. Surface soil-Blackish brown (20 cm)

b. Coral limestone -Phosphatic and include abundant Tridacna gigas (35 cm]

c. Brown clay (25 cm)

d. Foraminifera limestone -Somewhat phosphatic (65 cm)" lying on
"e. Foraminifera and coral sand."

An analysis of the "phosphatic reddish brown clay intercalated in the
cay sandstone" is given on p. 265:

Si0 2 CaO Fe203 AI2O3 P2O5

3.28 48.97 3.17 2.50 19.35$
Elsewhere (19^2) Tayama had remarked on the amazingly high percentages
of silica, iron and aluminum oxides.

In appendix I of 'the 1952 work is a photo (fig. 48, p. 95) of Gaferut
Island. Concerning this F. R. Fosberg says (personal communication) : "The
presence of bedded phosphate rock on Gaferut suggests that a vegetation
of Pisonia grandi s may have existed on the island, and the presence of
humus on the surface indicates that his must have been in the very recent
past. The complete absence of Pisonia now, as indicated by rliering is
indeed remarkable. Tayama' s photo suggests that Pisonia may possibly have
persisted until at least the date of the photo, as the much taller forest
on the right side of the picture has the aspect of Pison ia, though the
reproduction is so poor that this can be regarded only as an impression
rather than a certainty. "

There are almost no descriptions of Gaferut in the literature, other
than the brief German and Japanese texts. The Sailing Directions (U. S.
Hydrographic Office 1938) described it briefly as follows : "low, thickly
covered with trees, and encircled by a reef. There are no coconut palms
and no inhabitants, but natives from Faraulep Islands visit it to catch
birds, which are numerous on it." In a later edition (1952), the infor-
mation was amended to read: "Gaferut is low and covered with trees. Some
of the coconut palms attain a height of 65 feet. There were' no permanent
inhabitants in 1935, but since that time phosphate mining has been reported.
Numerous birds exist on the island, but no food or fresh water.

"The mean high-water interval at the island is 7I1. 30m. Mean high-
water spring tides rise 2rr feet."

- Ik -

Climate

The climate of Gaferut is a humid tropical one, with little seasonal
change. There are no records from the island itself, "but in this area of
the ocean, temperatures vary little around the year, the mean average air
temperature being about 82°F, with daily variations probably not exceed-
ing 15°^ and usually less. Atmospheric humidity is always high. It
rains throughout the year, with probably higher rainfall in the summer.
The total amount of rain must be in the neighborhood of 100 inches (less
than Truk to the south and more than Guam to the north). At Lamotrek,
somewhat to the south, the rainfall was 104 inches per year, "based on k
years of record.

The wind regime is probably the climatic component most affected "by
seasonality. The north-east trade winds are rather steady in the winter
and spring, and northeast, north and east winds prevail. From June or
July to October, the winds are more variable, with often a strong compon-
ent from southwest, west or south.

Every year some tropical storms or typhoons originate in an area
between Gaferut and Truk, and many of them, travelling northwestward
toward Guam, must pass near Gaferut. A direct hit is probably not too
frequent, but very strong winds and high waves must occur rather often.
That Senfft observed the results of the passage of such a storm in 1905
is quite likely. Even Ophelia I, which was so damaging in Jaluit, passed
not far from Gaferut toward the end of its destructive career, and so
must have Ophelia II (Nov. 30, i960) which devastated Ulithi. Such
storms can occur any month in the year in this part of the Pacific al-
though they are more frequent in the summer and fall.

Bibliography

Aso, Y.

Phosphates.

1-209, 1946 (mimeographed translation No. 399 by U. S. Navy, available

in Geological Survey Library)..

Cantova, J. -A.

Lettre ... au R. P. Guillaume Daubenton ...

Lettres edifiantes et curieuses 18: I88-2V7, 1728 (map tipped in

between pp. 188 and 189).

Chamisso, A. von

Remarks and opinions ... of the naturalist of the expedition: in,
Kotzebue, A voyage of discovery... 3: 1-318* h36-kh2, 1821.

Findlay, A. G.

A directory for the navigation of the north Pacific Ocean. 2nd ed.
1-1007, London,' I87O. .

Gressitt, J. L.

Notes on Ngaruangl and Kayangel Atolls, Palau Islands.
Atoll Research Bull. 21: 1-5, 1953.

- 15 -

Haneda, Y. _

[k trip of the outlying islands of Yap/
Collecting and Breeding l(9): 419-^30, 1939 (not seen, annotated in
Foster, H. L., Annotated Bibliography of geologic and soils litera-
ture of Western North Pacific Islands, 1956).

Kramer, A.

Zentralkarolinen 1 (Lamotrek Gruppe, Oleai, Feis): in, G. Thilenius,
Ergebnisse der Sudsee Expedition 1903-1910, II B 10, 1: 1-^13, 19 37.

Muller, W.

Yap: in, G. Thilenius, Ergebnisse der Sudsee Expedition 1908-1910,
II B 2, 1: 1-380, 1917.

Riesenberg, S. H. and Kaneshiro, S.
A Caroline Islands script.
Bureau of Am. Ethn. Bull. 173: 269-333, i960 (Anthrop, Pap, No. 60).

Sapper, K.

Dr. Friedericis Siidsee-Reisen 1909-
D. Kolonialbl. 21: l4l-1^2, 1910.

Senfft. A.

Bericht liber seine Rundreise durch die Westkarolinen und Palau-Inseln
D. Kolonialbl. 17: 281-284, 1906.

Smith, A. G.

Gamwoelhaelhi ishilh vfeleeya (Guide to Woleai spelling). 1-51> Guam,
1951 (mimeographed by Department of Education, HICCMTERPACIS) .

Tayama, R.

Types of phosphate deposits and their distribution in the South Sea
Islands. Sangy5 Kenkyusho Iho 8: 1-28, 19^2 (translated, 19^3, by
Geological Survey).

Tayama, R.

Coral reefs in the South Seas.

Hydrogr. Bull. 11: 1-292, 2 vols, of appendices, 1952.

U. S. Hydrographic Office

Sailing directions for the Pacific Island I.
H. 0. I65: 1-632, 1933 (later ed. I65A: 1952).

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 77
A check list of marine algae from Ifaluk Atoll, Caroline Islands

by
Isabella A. Abbott

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.
December 31, 1961

A check list of marine algae from Ifaluk Atoll , Caroline Islands

n /
by Isabella A. Abbott^

The marine algae of Ifaluk Atoll and of the Caroline Islands in
general appear to be similar to those from the Marshall Islands, as
described by Taylor (1950) and. Dawson (1956, 1957) • The Carolines are
for the most part low atolls and their algal floras might be expected to
be similar. Some of the volcanic islands in the Caroline group should,
on the other hand, furnish a more diverse flora.

The present check-list contains algae collected over a four-month
period and represents the most intensive collection of algae from the
Caroline Islands. It probably includes 80-90f 3 of the algae of a low
atoll near the Equator.

There are a total of 5k new records (31 green algae, 1 brown, 22 red)
among 85 species reported here for the Caroline Islands. Scnmidt (1928)
in summarizing the work of earlier investigators, reported a total of 77
species. To this number, about 20 more species have been reported by
various Japanese workers in scattered publications.

I wish to thank Dr. Harold J. Coolidge for making possible a grant
of funds from Contract :T7onr291l6 between the Office of Naval Research
and the National Academy of Sciences. I am greatly indebted to my husband,
Donald P. Abbott, for making these collections for me. The Ifaluk Survey,
sponsored by the Pacific Science Board, took place in 1953 and is
described by Marston Bates and D. P. Abbott in the volume Coral Island,
Portrait of an- Atoll, Scribner's, 1958. ■

In the list that follows, algae which were collected at more than
10 stations are listed as very common; those collected at 5-10 stations as
common; and those at fewer stations as rare. The specimens have been
deposited in the University of Michigan (UM), University of California at
Berkeley (UC), Bishop Museum (BM), U.S. National Museum (US), and the
Chicago Natural History Museum (CM). Some residual collections are at
the Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University (HMS). An asterisk
denotes a new record for the Caroline Islands.

Chlorophyceae

■ft Enteromorph a lingulata J. Ag. Rare. HMS

* Enteromorpha torta (Mertens) Reinbold. Rare. UM, UC, BM, US, CM, HMS.

* Enteromorpha sp. Common. UM, UC, US, CM.

* Ulvella len s Crouan. (On Mi crodictyo n o kamurai ) . Rare. HMS.

*Chaetomorpha antennina (Bory) Kilt zing. Rare. UM.

- Research Associate, Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University,
Pacific Grove, Calif.

-2-

*Rhizoclonium samoense Setchell, prox . Rare. HMS.

Cladophora sp. Very common. UM, UC, HMS.
* Cladophora fuliginosa ictitz. Common. UM, UC, BM, HMS.

Valonia aegagropila C. Ag. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.
- *Valonia ventricosa J. Ag. Rare. UM, UC, HMS.

Valonia utricularis C. Ag. Rare. UM, UC, BM, HMS.

Dictyosphaeria cavernos a (Forssk. ) Bj^rg. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US,
HMS, CM.
• ^Dictyosphaeria versluysii Weber -van Bosse. Very common. UM, UC, BM,

US, HMS.
* Boo&lea composita Brand. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, CM, HMS.

Anadyomene wrightii Gray. Rare. UM, UC, HMS.

Microdictyo n okamurai Setchell. (The commonest marine alga). UM, UC,
BM, US, CM, HMS.

Caulerpa antoensis Yamada. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, CM, HMS.
* Caulerpa am big ua Okamura. Rare. UM.
* Caulerpa "bikinensis Taylor. Rare. UM.

Caulerpa serrulata (Forssk.) J. Ag. (and varieties). Very common.
UM, UC, BM, US, CM.

Caulerpa urvilliana Montagne (and forms). Very common. UM, UC, BM,
US, HMS, CM.
* Bryopsis sp. Rare. HMS.

Udotea argentea Zanardini. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS, CM.
*Udotea indica A. and E. S. Gepp. Rare. UM, UC, HMS.
* Udotea orientalis A. and E. S. Gepp. Rare, UM, UC, BM, HMS.
* Avrainvillea obscur a J. Ag. Rare. UM, UC, BM, HMS.

Avrainvillea sp. UM, UC, CM.

-3-
*Rhipilia diaphana Taylor. Rare. UM.

* Rhipilia geppii Taylor. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, EMS, CM.
*Rhipilia orientalis A. and E. S. Gepp. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, BIS.
*Hal:imeda fragilis Taylor. Rare. EMS.
^Hj^Limeda gracilis Harvey (and form). Very common. UM, UC, BM, US,

HMS, CM.
* Halimeda lacunalis Taylor. Rare. UM, UC.

Halimed a micronesic a Yamada. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, IMS, CM.

Halimeda opuntia (L. ) Lainx. (and forms). Very common. UM, UC, BM, US,
HMS, CM. Note: The forroae elonga ta, h ederacea , triloba and
r enschii are distributed between UM, UC, and BM.
*Halimeda stuposa Taylor. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS, CM.
* Halimeda taenicola Taylor. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.

Halimeda tridens (Ellis et Sol. ) Lamx. Rare. UM, UC.

Halimeda sp. UM. (7 specimens).
*Halicoryne wrightii Harvey. Rare. UC.
* Neomeris annulata Dickie. Rare. HMS.
*Neomeris vanbosseae Hove. Rare. UM, UC.

*Acetabularia parvula Solms-Laubach. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.
*Vaucheria sp. Rare. HMS.
* Dichotomo siphon sp. Rare. UM, HMS.
* Pseudodicho tomos iphon c onstri cta Yamada. Rare. UM, UC, BM, HMS.

Phaeophyceae
* Ectocarpus mitchella e Harvey. Rare. UM, UC.
Sphacelaria sp. HMS.

Pocockiella variegata (Laxix.) Papenf. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US,
HMS, CM.

4-

Rhodophyceae

Asterocyti s ornata (C. Ag. ) Hamel. Rare. UM, UC, US.
* Goniotrichum elegans (Chauvin) Zanard. Rare. HMS.

Erythrotrichia carnea (Dillwyn) J. Ag. Rare. UC.
*Liagora c eranoides Lamx. Rare. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.
*Liagora kahukuana Abbott. Rare. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.
* Liagora sp. (3 collections).. HMS.
* Galaxaura filamentosa Chou. Rare. UM, UC, HMS.

Gal axaura fastigiata Decaisne. Rare. UM, HMS.
* Goniolithon f rutescens (Foslie) Foslie. Rare. UM, UC, HMS.
* Porolithon onkodes (Heydrich) Foslie. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US,

. HMS, CM.
* Porolithon gardineri (Foslie) Foslie. Very common. UM, UC, BM,

US, HMS.
*Porolithon aequinoctiale (Foslie) Foslie. Common. UM, UC, BM,

US, HMS.
*Porolithon sp. (k specimens). UM, UC, BM.
* Lithothamnion sp. Common. UM, UC, BM, HMS.
*'F osliella farinos a (Lamx.) Howe. Very common on other algae.

Jania sp. Very common. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS.

Hypnea nidulans Setchell. .Rare. UM, UC, BM, US, HMS, CM. .
* Hypn?5 spirella . ( C . Ag. ) Ktltzing. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, CM.
* Wurdei>y \nnia miniata (Drap.) Feldmann et Hamel. Rare. HMS.
* Rhodymer.:ia sp. Rare. HMS.
* Ceramium sp. Common. UM, UC.

Centroceras clavulatux a (c. Ag. ) Montagne. Rare. UC.

Centroceras minutum Yamada. Common. UM, UC.

-5-

•* Antithamnion sp. Rare. IMS.

* Griffithsia tenuis C. Ag. Rare. HMS.

* Griffithsia rhizophor a (Grim.) Weber -van Bosse. Rare. HMS.

Haloplegma duperreyi Montagne. Common. UM, UC, EM, US, HMS, CM.

Heteros iphonia wurd emannii (Bail. ) Falkenb. Rare. HMS.

Dasya adhaerens Yamada. Rare. UM, UC.

Hypoglossum m inimum Yamada. Rare. UM.
*Po lys iphonia subtilissima Montague. Very common. UM, UC, US, HMS, CM.
*Herpos iphonia tenella (C. Ag. ) Naegeli. Very common. UM, UC, BM,
US, HMS.

Leveilleia jungermannioide s (Mart, et Her.) Harvey. Rare: Occurring
on species of Halimeda . UM, UC, BM.
^ Laurencia mariannensis Yamada. Very common. UM, UC, BM, HMS, US.

Laurencia perforat a (Bory) Montagne, prox. Common. UM.

Laurencia sp. (two specimens). UM.

Chondria sp. (1 specimen). HMS.

Angiospemae

Halophila oval is R. Br. Common. UM, UC, BM, US, MS.

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, E. Y. Some marine algae of the Southern Marshall Islands.
Pac. Sci. 10(1): 25-66, 1956.

Annotated list of marine algae from Eniwetok. Pac. Sci. 11(1):

92-132, 1957-

Taylor, W. R. Plants of Bikini... 227 pp., 79 pis., Ann Arbor, 1950-

Schmidt, 0. C. Verzeichnis der Meeresalgen von Neu -Guinea und dem
westlichen Ozeanien. Iledwigia 68: 19 -#6, 1928.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. ?3

Narrative report of "botanical field work on Kure Island,,
3 October 1959 to 9 October 1959

Horace F. Clay

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council

Washington, D. C.

December [jl , 19ol

Narrative Report of Botanical Field Work on Kure Island

3 October 1959 to 9 October 3.959

by Horace F. Clay
University of Hawaii

Kure (often referred to as Ocean Island) is the most western island
in the Hawaiian Archipelago. It is located about 1250 miles west of
Honolulu. The atoll is described, with map and bibliography, in
E. H. Bryan, Jr., American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain, Honolulu,
19^2.

In order to make Kure Island more habitable to the blackfooted and
Laysan Albatrosses, the Naval Construction Forces of the Pacific in
October 1959 planned to bulldoze a series of runways 100 yards long and
50 feet wide on Kure Island. This is a report of the botanical field
work carried on in conjunction with that Navy project.

The State of Hawaii, through its Land Commissioner, Mr. Eric Reppun,
gave the Navy permission (Revocable Permit No. 2530) to make the
alterations to Kure Island. The State of Hawaii, however ; stipulated
that two types of plants be preserved on Kure Island, Lepturus repens
and Solanum nelson i var. in termedium (now Solan um nelsoni ) . The writer,
familiar with atoll floras, was invited to join the group going to Kure,
so that identification could be made of the plants growing on that island.

A previous collection of plants had been made by the Tarager
Expedition in April 1923- In that year, thirteen species of vascular
plants were collected on Kure. Eleven of these thirteen species are
still growing there; C enclirus agrimonioides var. lay sanens is and
Achyranthes splendens var. reflexa, represented by a very few specimens
in 1923> have disappeared*-. However, six new species have found their way
to Kure, so the flora there now comprises seventeen kinds of plants.

Green Island, the largest of the three islets at Kure Atoll, is the
only one on which there is any higher plant life. The other two islets
are tiny sand-spits. Green Island is approximately three -fourths of a
mile long, about one -half mile wide, and has an elevation of some 20 feet.
There is a dense growth of Scaevola sericea which encircles and covers
most of Green Island. Scattered here and there among these Scaevola
plants are patches of Boerhavia diffusa which sometimes appear as a
loose ground cover under the Scaevola and frequently can be seen as
scrambling vine -like plants. Sand dunes rise sharply from the beach
on the lagoon side, and the Scaevola serice a is less dense here. In the
open areas along the dimes, one can observe scattered clumps of the
bunch grasses, Eragrosti s v ariabilis and Eragrostis whitneyi var. eaumii .
On the inner slopes of the dunes near the radar reflector tower, several
dozen clumps of L epturu s repens can be found. With the exception of
three clumps of this grass on the dunes at the eastern tip of Green
Island, Lepturus repens was only observed near the radar reflector tower.

* These two species, while not in evidence in 1959* were found again in
196l by Ch. Lamoureux, cf. Bulletin 79 •

-2-

Since Cynodon dactylon , Casuarina equisetifolia (k of the 6 existing
specimens on Green Island) 7 Plucbea od'ora ta and Verges ina encelioides
seem to be localized on the dunes near the radar reflector tower which
was constructed in 1955 > it is surmised that seeds of these plants were
brought on equipment from the Island of Midway.

One very young specimen of Messerschmidia argentea, the only one on
Green Island, was found growing on the windward shore.

An open plain of about 25 acres comprises the central -eastern portion
of the islet. On this plain were found Lepidiu m owaihiense , Tribulus
cistoides , Ipomoea indi ca, Solanum nelsoni , Solanum nigrum, Sicyos hispidus ,
and Lipochaeta integrifoli a. These plants were only found on the plain
and not in any other areas of Green Island.

-v

Two different saprophytic fungi were found, both associated with
decaying stems of Scaevola sericea . These fungi have not been identified.

As a matter of interest, during the seven days that the author spent
on Kure, seeds were collected in the beach drift. The following were
found during this period: Cocos nucifera - 7 dead nuts, Aleurites
moluccana - 9 dead nuts, and Mucuna gigant ea - 1 seed.

The following is a total list of the plants collected on this
expedition. Those marked with an asterisk are new since the Tanager
Expedition, April 1923»

#2 Fungi
Gramineae :

•* Cynodon dactylo n (L. ) Pers.
E ragrostis variabilis (Gaud. ) Steud.

Eragrostis whitneyi Fosb. var. caumii Fosb. /Jf. falcate/ "
Lepturus repens (Forst. ) R. Br.
Casuar inaceae :

^ Casuarina equisetifolia L.
Plyctaginaceae :

Boerhavia diffusa L.
Cruciferae:

Lepidium owaihiense Cham. & Schlecht.
Zygophyllaceae :

Tribulus cistoides L.

-3-
Convolvulaceae :

Ipomoea indica (Burm. ) Merr.

Boraginaceae :

* Messerschmidia argentea (L.) Johnston (photo only)

Solanaceae :

Solanum nelsoni Dunal

*Solanum nigrum L.

Cucurbitaceae :

Sicyos hispidus Hbd.

Goodeniaceae :

Scaevola sericea Vahl

Compositae:

Lipochaeta integrifolia (Nutt. ) Gray

* Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.

* Verbesina encelioides Gray

On the beach were found:

Cocos nucifera L., 7 dead nuts

Aleurites moluccana Willd., 9 nuts

* Mucuna gigantea ( Willd. ) DC., 1 seed

Herbarium specimens and photographs in the field of the plants
collected on this trip are located in the Herbarium of the Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, Hawaii, and in the U.S. National Herbarium, Washington, D. C.

- k -

Photos : Green Island, Kure Atoll, from air, October 3 and November
3) ^959, before and after "habitat improvement".

Photos courtesy of U. S. Navy

- •

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 79
Botanical observations on Leeward Hawaiian Atolls

by
Charles H. Lamoureux

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.
December j±, 1961

Botanical Observations on Leeward Hawaiian Atolls

by

1/
•.'■;. . Charles H. Lamoureux

I. Ifotes on the plants of Kure Atoll

Through the courtesy of the United States Coast Guard and Dr. K. J.
Coolidge, the writer was able to visit Kure .atoll from September 12 to
±k, 1961. The observations made at this time will serve as a supplement
to Dr. Clay's (see ARB no. 78) report. I wish to thank Drs. George
Butler, M. D. F. Udvardy, Robert Usinger, and Mr. David Woodside for
calling my attention to certain plants.

Since Dr. H. F. Clay visited Kure in October, 1959, a U. S. Coast
Guard Loran Station has been constructed there on Green Island. Among
the facilities now present on the island are a landing strip paved with
crushed coral over asphalt, a series of buildings and a 625 foot radio
tower. As a result of the disturbances caused by activities involved in
the construction of these facilities and the intentional and unintention-
al introduction of plants concomitant with such activities, there have
been significant changes in the flora and vegetation of the island within
the past two years.

All 13 species of vascular plants collected in 1923 by the Tanager
Expedition (Christopherson and Caum, 1931) were still growing, on Kure
during the present visit in 1961. Of the six species first reported by
Clay (ARB jQ), all but Pluchea od orata were collected. In addition one
presumed native species, Fhyllostegia variabilis, and 22 species of newly
introduced weeds and cultivated plants are here reported from Kure for
the first time. Thus the flora now contains ^1 species of vascular plants.

The Commanding officer of the Loran Station informed us that approx-
imately 1500 plants for use in landscaping were flown in from Honolulu
in March, 1961. Those which have survived are planted in the clearing
around the buildings and the tennis court. In addition, Cynodon dactylon
has been planted as a lawn grass and appears to be thriving. Another
200 pounds of seed of this species is being so\m to create more lawn area.
The introduction of more shade tree species is being considered. Some
of the weed species were obviously introduced with the plants from Hono-
lulu since they occur either in the cans with these plants or a short
distance from the cans and not elsewhere on the island. Other weedy
species are at present restricted to read margins or other disturbed
areas and may have come in with some of the heavy construction equipment.
One plant of Spergularia marina found growing in the middle of the air-
strip may well have developed from a seed transported to Kure in the
landing gear of some aircraft. This Spergularia is abundant on the mar-
gins of the airstrip at French Frigate Shoal, although it has not been
reported from Midway.

1/ Department of Botany, University of Hawaii.

- 2 -

During the stay on Kure the larger of the two sand islands was
visited. This island is about ^00 meters long, 10 to 20 meters wide
and reaches a maximum elevation of about one meter. The vegetation
consisted of less than a dozen scattered plants of Boerhavia di ffusa
and one tiny clump of Eragrostis whitneyi var. caumii . Observation of
the smaller sand island (50 m. by 10 m.T~from a distance of approxi-
mately 50 meters revealed no sign of vascular plants. All other species
are restricted to Green Island.

Specimens cited below were collected and identified by the author
and have been deposited in the herbarium of the Eernice P. Bishop Mu-
seum, Honolulu 17, Hawaii. The initials "CHL" identify the author's
collection numbers. No specimens of cultivated plants were made. New
records are indicated by *.

PANDANACEAE
* Pandanus sp. Variegated variety planted near the living quarters.

GRAMLNEAE

Cenchrus agrimonioides var. laysanensis F. Br. Half a dozen clumps in
one small area of the central plain, intermixed with Boerhavia and
Scaevola . CHL 1912.

^ Cenchrus e china tus L. Two plants observed, one near the living
quarters, the other near the east end of the landing strip. Both
had set large quantities of seed so this plant will probably spread.
CHL 1908.

* Chloris inflata Link. Disturbed areas near quarters and on roadsides.
CHL 1907.

* Chloris virgata Swartz. Disturbed areas near quarters. CHL 1887.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. On dunes and beach near radar reflector
tower, and used around quarters as lawn grass. CHL 1866, 1884, 1885.

* Digitaria sanguinalis (L. ) Scop. Disturbed areas near quarters. CHL

* Eleusine indica (L. ) Gaertn. Disturbed areas near quarters. CHL 1888.

^ Eragrosti s amabilis (L. ) W. & A. Disturbed areas near quarters.
CHL 1862.

Eragrortis variabili s (Gaud. ) Steud. Fairly abundant in open areas of
eastern-central plain. CHL 1868, 1869.

Eragrostis whitneyi var. caumii Fosb. Common in open sandy areas on
lagoon side. One clump on the larger sand island. CHL l86l, 1867,
187O, 1893.

- 3 -

Lepturus repens var. su bulatu s Fosb. Several clumps near radar reflector
tower and near east end of plain. CHL 1873.

*Setaria verticillata (L. ) Beauv. One plant near the west end of the
landing strip. CHL 1906.

CYPERACEAE

* Cyperus rotundus L. A few plants in disturbed areas near quarters,
CHL 1905.

PALMAE
* Cocos nucifera L. Seedlings planted near quarters.

CASUARINACEAE

Casuarina equisetifolia L. In addition to the larger trees reported by
Clay (ARB 78) > several young plants are being grown around the quarters,
CHL 1886.

AMARMTHACEAE

Achyranthes splendens var. reflexa Hod. Here and there on the central
plain. CHL 1875, l^.

WYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa L. Abundant all over Green Island under and around

Scaevola bushes and on the central plain. B oerhavi a is growing rapidly
in recently cleared areas and has covered the albatross runways which
were cleared in October 1959* It is growing through the back-top at
the east end of the landing strip. About a dozen plants are growing
on the larger sand island. CHL i860, 1876, 1877, l88l, 1882.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

* Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb. One plant growing in the center of
the landing strip, a few others noted along the road leading to the
radio tower. CHL 1910.

CRUCIFERAE

Lepidium o-waihiense C. & S. Abundant on the central plain and invading
areas recently cleared for installation of radio tower guy wires.
CHL 1872.

- k -

ZYGOPIIYLLACEAE

Tribulus c istoides L. Here and there in the central plain and on road-
sides. CHL l8"jk,

EUPHORBIACEAE

•X' Codiaeum sp. Cultivated near quarters.

^ Euphorbia glomerifera (Millsp. ) "Wheeler. Weed in cans with cultivated
plants near quarters and spreading into open areas nearby. CHL 1863,
1904.

MALVACEAE
^ Hibiscus sp. Cultivated near quarters.
•* Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. Cultivated near quarters.

COMBRETACEAE
* Terminalia catappa L. Cultivated near quarters.

APOCYUACEAE
^Nerium oleander L. Cultivated near quarters.

CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoea indica (Burm. f . ) Merr. Common on central plain. CHL i860.

BORAGINACEAE

Messerschmidia argentea (L.f. ) Johnston. Several trees near eastern
tip of island, one on south-central part. CHL 1895.

LABIATAE

•fr Phyllostegia variabilis Bitter. Two sterile plants were found on the
central plain growing in a patch of Boerhavia diffusa and Solanum
nelsoni about 100 meters from the tennis courts. The vegetative char-
acters match those of Phyllostegia variabilis , a species previously
recorded only from Laysan and Midway. Certain identification, however,
awaits the collection of fertile material. CHL 1926.

- 5 -
SOLANACEAE

Solarium nelsoni Dunal. Common around edges of and occasionally in
Scaevola thickets on central plain. CHL l8jd, 1879, 1898.

Solanum nigrum L. Common on central plain, especially in disturbed
areas. CHL 1897.

CUCURBITACEAE
Sicyos hispidus Hbd. Common on central plain. CHL 1899 - 1903.

GOODEMIACEAB

Scaevola sericea Valil. Abundant all over island forming dense thickets
from one to three meters high. CHL 1871, 1890, I89I.

COMPOSITAE

* Conyza bonariensis (L. ) Cronq. One clump noted near quarters.
CHL 1909.

* Erailia ^avanica (Burm. ) Rob. Weed in cans with cultivated plants
near quarters and spreading into open areas nearby. CHL 186*1 .

• ^naphalium sandwicensi um Gaud. Abundant in recently cleared areas
- around quarters. CHL 1889, I892.

* Helianthus annuw L. Cultivated near quarters.

Lipochaeta integrifolia (Nutt. ) Cray. Common on central plain, moving
into disturbed areas. CHL 1911.

* Sonchus oleraceus L. Disturbed areas near quarters. CHL 1883.

Verbesina encelioides (Cav. ) B. & H. Several plants near radar reflec-
tor tower and spreading onto nearby lagoon beach, with seedlings also
present in disturbed areas near quarters. CHL 1896.

The disturbed areas, which are the places where the greatest veget-
ational changes are to be expected, are of four general types:

a. Margins of roads and landing strip. Boerhavia diffusa has

covered most of the margin of the landing strip, with Tribulus
cistoides and some of the weedy grasses occurring as scattered
individuals. Along the roadsides Boerhavia is somewhat less
abundant with a larger proportion of weeds. In one place where
a road is cut through a sand dune, Eragrostis whitneyi var.
caumii is growing well.

- 6 -

b. Albatross runways. These were cleared in October, 1959 • The
parts which were not obliterated by the landing strip are now
partially to completely covered with Boerhavia .

c. Clearings around living quarters. Gnaphalium sandwi censium is
extremely abundant in areas where Cynodon dactylon has not been
planted. Euphorbia glomerifera , Emili a javanica , C onyza bona -
riensis, and Eragrostis amabilis were found only here at the
time the study was made.

•V

d. Clearing around radio tower. A series of cleared strips a few
meters in width radiate out from the base of the tower to the
guy -wire anchors. These strips cut through most of the eastern
part of the central plain. Boerhavia di ffusa , Le pidium
o-waihiense , Lipochaeta integrifolia , and Solanum nigrum are
moving into these areas.

It is too early to predict the total impact of the recently introdu-
ced plants on the indigenous species. However, if no further major con-
struction occurs, most of the indigenous plant species are present in
numbers large enough that they do not appear to be in immediate danger.
There are two exceptions to this statement, C enchru s agrimonioides var.
laysanensis and Fhyllostegia variabilis (if our plant proves to be this
species). Cenchrus is no longer to be found on Laysan and has not been
collected on Midway since 1902. The few plants remaining on Kure should
receive some measure of protection. Fhyllostegia is also extinct on Lay-
san and has not been collected on Midway since 1923 • The Kure plant
should be watched to verify the determination and should also be protected.

Photo : Green Island, Kure Atoll, view from southwest 1961, showing
airstrip and installations.

Photo courtesy of U. S. Coast Guard.

- 7 -

I I . V ascular plants of Tern Island, French Frigate Shoal

Through the courtesy of the United States Coast Guard and Dr. Harold
F. Coolidge, the author was able to visit Tern Island on September 2, 19ol.
Since only half an hour ashore was available, during which time a circuit
of the island was made, the observations reported here should be consid-
ered as "preliminary" . I wish to express my appreciation to H. Ivan
Rainwater who supplied me with a list of his collections from French
Frigate Shoal, and to Dr. V. J. Kra.jina and Miss Marie Heal who assisted
in the identification of the material designated here as Atrip le x muel -
leri.

French Frigate Shoal, about kQO miles northwest of Honolulu, is a
crescent-shaped atoll on which are a number of sand islets. A few miles
to the southwest are two rock islets, remnants of the original volcanic
island. Tern Island, one of the sand islets (23° 5V N. Lat., l66° 19'
W. Long.), is now the site of an airstrip and a United States Coast Guard
loran station.

The botanical history of Tern Island is brief. The Tanager Expedi-
tion in 1923 (Christophersen and Caum, 1931) found five species of
vascular plants growing there: Lepturus repens , Chenopodium sandwicheum ,
(now C. oafauense ), Boerhavia diffusa , Portulaca lutea and Tribulus cisto -
ides. During World War II the airstrip was constructed and some time
later the loran station was built. H. Ivan Rainwater made plant collec-
tions on Tern and other islands in October, 1953* 1^ e second published
observations were by Svihla (1957)* who visited the island in 195^, and
reported that the flora consisted of "various grasses", Ipomoea pes -
caprae , Scaevola (probably S. sericea although no species was cited),
and cultivated plants of Cocos nucifera and Casuarina sp.

Most of the surface of Tern Island is now occupied by the crushed
coral airstrip which is 3L00 feet long and drops off sharply into the
water at the east and west ends. Along the south- edge of the airstrip
is an unpaved area 10 to 50 meters wide on which the living quarters are
located. There is an extensive sandy beach along the south shore. On
the north edge of the airstrip the unpaved area is up to 20 meters wide
and there are only a few small sandy beach areas. The island is about
two meters high. It is likely that little, if any, of the surface of the
island was left untouched when the airstrip was constructed (see note p. 10 \

The unpaved area south of the airstrip is rather densely covered
with shrubs of Messerschmidia ar gen tea and Pluchea odor at a , and an herb-
aceous cover in which the predominant species are Ipomoea pes-caprae,
Boerhavia diffusa ,- Cenchrus echinatus , Setaria verticillata , Sonchus
oleraceus , and Conyza bonariensis . Of less frequent occurrence here are
Eleusine i ndica , Lepturus rep_ens_, Portulaca lutea and P. oleracea. One
large clump of Scaevola sericea is present southwest of the living
quarters. Spergularia marina is abundant on the margins of the airstrip.
The unpaved area on the north side of the island is less densely vegetated
than that on the south. Pluchea odorata is present, but the shrubs are
widely scattered. Very few plants of Messerschmidia ar gen tea are present.

- 8 -

The herbaceous species are the same as those on the south except that
Tribulus cistoides and Cynodon dactylon are also present on the north.
Atriplex inuelleri was found only in a single locality at the ■west end
of the airstrip.

Cultivated plants around the Coast Guard quarters include Cocos
nucifera , Casuarina equisetifolia , Ficus sp., Coccoloba uvifera, and
Plumeria obtusa .

Of the five species noted by Christophersen and Caum (1931) for
Tern Island all but Chenopodium oahuense were collected in 1961. The
four species named by Svihla (1957) were still present. Fourteen addi-
tional species of weeds and cultivated plants are reported here for the
first time. The flora now contains 22 species of vascular plants.

While it is impossible to determine the modes of introduction of
the weedy species, it seems likely that the seeds of some of these came
to the island in the soil which was reportedly brought there from Hono-
lulu (Svihla, 1957) • Honolulu was probably the place from which the
cultivated plants were obtained. Other weedy species may have reached
Tern Island accidentally via construction equipment, aircraft, or per-
sonnel. One cannot completely discount the possibility of "natural"
dispersal by wind, birds, or ocean currents. However, most of the weedy
species were present in the main Hawaiian Islands for many years before
1923, but the species were not found on French Frigate Shoal then. Thus,
the weeds appeared there only after man began to make frequent visits.

The specimens cited below are deposited in the herbarium of the
Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu 17, Hawaii. The initials "CHL"
identify the author's collections made on September 2, 1961. The init-
ials "HIR" indicate that the species was collected by H. Ivan Rainwater
in October, 1953; "-AS" indicates the species was collected by Arthur
Svihla in February, 195&. The collections of Rainwater and Svihla were
not numbered. New records are indicated by *.

GRAMINEAE
* Cenchrus echinatus L. CHL l66l.
* Cynodon dactylon (L. ) Pers. CHL 1673.
*Eleusine indica (L. ) Gaertn. CHL 1662, AS.

Lepturus repehs (Forst.) R. Br. var repens . CHL 1668, l&jk, HIR, AS.
* Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv. CHL 1669, 1670, HIR, AS.

PALMAE
Cocos nucifera L. (Specimens not collected).

_ a -

CASUARH1ACEAE
Casuar ina equisetifolia L. CHL 1651.

MORACEAE
* Ficus sp. CHL I659.

POLYGOHACEAE
^Coccoloba uvifera (L. ) Jacq. CHL 1660.

CHEHOPODIACEAE
* Atriplex muelleri Benth. CHL 165k, .HIR.

NYCTAGIMCEAE
Boerhavia diffusa L. CHL 1671, 1675, HIR, AS.

PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca lutea Sol. CHL 1667, HIR.
* Portulaca olerace a L. CHL 1666.

CARYOPHYLLACSAE
*Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb. CHL 1663.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Tribnius cistoides L. CHL 1652, HIR, AS.

CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoca pes-caprac (L. ) Sw. CHL 1658, HIR.

APCCYMCEAE
*Plumeria obtusa L. CHL 165O.

BORAGINACEAE
* i4esserschmidia argentea (L.f.) Johnston. CHL 1653, HIR.

■- 10 -

G00DENIACEAE
Scaevola sericea Vahl. CHL 1656, HIR.

COMPOSITAE
* Conyza bonariensis (L. ) Cronq.. CKL 1655, 1665.
* Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. CHL 1657, 1672, HTR, AS.
-* Sonchus oleraceus L. CHL 166U, AS.

LITERATURE CITED

Christopher sen, E., and Caum, E.L.

Vascular plants of the Leeward Islands, Hawaii.
Bishop Museum Bulletin 8l: l->+l, 1931.

Clay, Horace F.

Narrative report of botanical field "work on Kure Island.
Atoll Research Bulletin 78: 1-3, 1961.

Svihla, A.

Observations on French Frigate Shoals, February, 195&.
Atoll Research Bulletin 51: 1-2, 1957-

Note — The statement on p. 7> "It is likely that little, if any, of the
surface of the island was left untouched when the airstrip was con-
structed, " has recently been confirmed by Dr. Vernon E. Smith of
Kaneohe, Hawaii. Dr. Smith tells me that he spent several days on
Tern Island in 19^8, at which time he did not observe any higher
plants growing on the island.

ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

No. 80
The tropical coral reef as a biotope

by
Sebastian A. Gerlach

'Translated by Alan J. Kohn

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences --National Research Council

Washington, D. C.
December 31 » 19^1

The tropical coral reef as a biotope

by Sebastian A. Gerlach
Zoological Institute, University of Kiel, Germany

Translated by Alan J. Kohn
Department of Biological Sciences
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida

On few marine habitats is there such a voluminous literature as on
tropical coral reefs. However, most studies have been concerned with
very veil defined problems, primarily with the laws of growth of reefs
and with theories which explain the origin of coral reefs and coral islands
through the combination of biological and geological factors.

Only recently has there been concern with detailed studies of the
living habits of coral polyps, of their nutrition, and of their dependence
on different environmental conditions. Similarly, the various ecological
zones of which the coral reef is composed have only been clearly defined
in recent times and confirmed through faunistic studies. Here may be
cited the works on fishes of a Pacific atoll by Harry (1953) and on the
mollusks by Morrison (195*0* works which confirm the validity of the reef
zones distinguished by Tracey, Cloud and Emery (1955)*

In contrast, for other groups of animals, the only statements at our
disposal are those found scattered in the systematic and faunistic
literature, together with the individual observations of various natural-
ists. No comprehensive summary seems to have been made as yet. Until
recently, literally nothing was known abou