Paar tr i adie hk dient Wii ae anti e e pita indiana tinea aied beak iad miter tee an Ge whet Lb tectn le Ges aNaitnh mt rte sie ae D y+. Miglin im tte Gs Rem wehateF nd pt steeds fee nae cng petal nh re Ranreine Faedoe? oko FF a at Rola R alia Bebe kewe He Esteban le Pediat CPD Put os 4 tim oeba hade bop deta tl buen te Paves ‘s a tetas Coker an AF xctninw HO a VAD a Eerebnim Nat pt dob in nde Og ME wal Thy EE bie Mh a Ve PM atte Eb One de 6 eh mt ada th gslne thei PAO thabie Tel es ota Spt hin he ay no’: S Ome Nb. pS led om Se F an ht rote ot a nb ally Dhedis Emile? eRe A nad ee ee ee Pe Se it eee CE es Oa) EE ON Ai De Ralg sm BER ee Wi Dar honing! 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Suir, Tee Na lee beewhe RA teste veh Bate wale sRa® SRahuihs tata tem nanathe MA Eyl nite Reteeleaie be Week cvs aR e Ty MOM ctr eRe Ih emote note omoren Pr eraes ent RNs Nk we nee ene SSN Wh TAN ey ete te Wa ith Heh Pe ibe ewe Se Tate he, Ne NaS Oe he ee ihe Fe Se Ne ee Eee in tale tary fae eae ee ee Rowe Site Bae De et ew tee Pet Rae be Wate Earhen Age) SRST yam, AEF Se DeLana ey te os eke eae eee a Tre th en ee Se et ah Oe ee ie ee Ce RTGS ee te eh Hh ey Bates Sets St a Fixed Om I Fe ot aygeeP hg ae we Mae OR ETE iting O% reese FA AN Feary oto, rh ts er Pel BS Foils bert eRe ae eden oben tap Hetil SSA patel eine neta Painting! ee ee ee ee eee cae ee = Bette be Beams 5 Sa etce te Seb Be renee ste hae ORS eh Onuy wee ae abe Ae Nanthn Ra Mg HS AL ate wes rete eh Ma hee lhe tote a ie i ee eats hy Ye he ON ee LN AoE BIE NM ete Sek ek Stele ike OMe ne gAI Mao a herb oe Matha arn eh aly yy Seine Be ene Set tebe nt pe ethene ne Feet res ENT ae Se Ne OR e toes Lee Bits eo me Pa Saath mw tthe sc ewat Wabeestin hy Retina Hele snei® Votes ie ANT ATS 0b, te had oD ws die He PnP Ba ve? OR POM PO mie oft int wet qed Fr Si ee oe en ne PASM TL ee he a eRe Selle BES Htattete Neel ee ae re eet ee ee nae Ae tet te SAR Re Se ater von Mae LM a 6g Shetoaalt othe tb eee mete Bee arty? eH ad eee Oe Cre ee te tetet stbndu ce cries eae a wheres owt Me ey Le - 2 : ~ - - , uy ee ee 7 a are ~ < “3 Boete Pug 5 2 er SS ; 2 : : : 7 : 7 7 7 7 + - ‘ : : ve : : sits ae “> : - Bane mo giwse 9 eee als - * . . = Se » Re ete a ~ F ea, Skt oe a eee ee Ska, | Ste eg weg Eat a : 7 i : a : Y ~ ee ee - A ~ ee eX, et Emo tia, EMS are + mNieig a vs a: - i. : " - ~ : : 7 Z - * De ae : ~ wets oS els me a nna» © Spd fale oe - - ' - . > ; eis! Ys : fa a DeecateD) = oes A ets me ie eokF es ot 5 ae a = : - . : : . : a . : coe atts se te 5 2 er E % , ee oa : : -- tA58 w ES = Soe a : ae ) : - ; _ 28, - : = “eee - ee SA 82 Goethnis - 7 - s . . 2s W nats 2 ~ Fi © pi = [eee Hey Lae | bere ROTO Ne *hinersecuenae : Eps ore bal! y ane zt Nee, Sn gear set eae a, c ae se ah ., Paes an do teat ia eS fi eee al a ca ; 1S ge Me “ae ay ye at eon ap Oh ee Se” —=— are AgLt he Poin ey 7 cae ca) Je ae on ih a cy “a eB eves 0, ea hy a ri 4 1 ees ws FED “ance Uae a 3 ean \ 1 Bde, cH ivan ey “Se 7 oN eat LS cae f eo! a a uy Vig: Eo Adie TOE eke FE Waal by % ey Ne Bon aN spar ras, Ae Nee ca Baa oi nO Rast ay fbaey ties TSEEN cauoen ora aE EEE ArT lea HEA ra a ey Bae 7 aihae Spl oft id 13; Seg Gi “Mp ay 4 H i EI a alae \ i] i 4) F ya EP | : t ' ' | Hi 2 EY pA ) et ROC Wik ‘fe Me RPT & A “ = Perea HT eae ae [eee reat she id og ottra eS See, St “dy, =i S Set =) aaa g EL? ! 7 hey [aah wiley , ef a la a Goes eRe’ Fa, ST ae a eet eroree xe, TY tel apices ys aay vp te Bs Mie de PE ee S Sait & ~ iene een = See ee ‘er 5 Wa gt 3, SERS! Pa Gb et WatEzoes £7 her = =a a OA (EE TO ONE ete OSC, eee eee VY, SE i eon pg “pte: Sa Ih TE aia 7 pereee BL Sesspareen even, Ue a ee ee atte ae Ss a Od \ THE AMERICAN JOURNAL aoe OF PCIENCGE AND ARTS. _ CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND e JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXII.—NOVEMBER, 1856. WITH THREE PLATES AND A MAP. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. REW YORK: G. P. POFNAM & CO. B. HAYES, PRINTER, Ps t' ry - 5 ete aisy vs A VAS 2 ae one iTe sew A CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIEI. ‘ NUMBER LXIV. Art. I. Notice of Microscopic Forms found in the soundings of the Sea of Kamtschatka—with a plate; by Prof. J. W. Baitey, II, Examination of two Sugars (Panoche and Pine Sugar) from California ; by SamueL W. Jounson, . - a the III. On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series ; by MM. VaLenciEnNes and Fremy, : - - - IV. A Review of the Classification of Crustacea with reference to certain principles of Classification ; by James D. Dana, V. On the Mode of testing Building Materials, and an account of the Marble used in the Extension of the United States Cap- itol; by Professor Jos—epH Henry, - - - - - VI. On the Occurrence of the Ores of Iron in the Azoic System ; by J. D. Wuitney, - : “ 3 t 2 : VII. Obituary of Professor Zadock Thompson. ° - - VIII. On the Influence of the Solar Radiation of the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions ; by J. H. Gurapsrone, Ph.D., F.R.S., - - - - IX. Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, - - - ° X. Five New Mineral Species; by Prof. Cuartes U. Sueparp, XI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxiis—Report on the his- tory of the manufacture of Artificial Soda, 99.—Manufac- ture of Chinese Porcelain, 101.—Peculiar arrangement of a Voltaic Battery: The natural state of Hippuric Acid, 102.— Astronomical news, 103.—Equatorial Telescope: Zenith Telescope: Stereoscopic experiment: ‘Use of brine in food, 104. . Page. J 6 9 14 30 38 44 49 67 96 v3 IV CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the production of very high temperatures, 105.—On a new mode of furming ether and its homologues: On the equivalent of antimony: On the detection of phosphorus in cases of poisoning. 107.—Sulphate of nickel: Specific volume of compounds containing nitrogen: On the specific heat of some elements and on the isomeric modifications of selenium, 108. Geology.—On Earthquakes in California from 1812 to 1855, by J. B. Trasx, 110.—Geo- graphical Discoveries in Africa--Dr. Petermann’s Mittheilungen aus Julius Perthes’ geographischer Anstalt, 116.—Notices of remains of extinct Reptiles. and Fishes, dis- covered by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the Bad Lands of the Judith River, Nebraska Terri- tory, by Josepu Leipy, M.D., 118.—Notice of a new Fossil Genus belonging to the family Blastoidea, from the Devonian strata near Louisville, Ky., by B. F. Saumarp, M.D., and L. P. Yanpeut, M.D., 120.—Reptilian Remains in the New Red Sandstene of Pennsylvania, by I. Lea, 122.—On the composition of the Water of the Delaware River, by Henry Wurtz, 124.--On the successive changes of the Temple of Serapis, by Sir Cuarztes Lyewt, F.R.S., 126.—A Geological Reconnoissance of the State of Tennessee, by James M. Sarrorp, 129.—Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Strata of Ohio : Cretaceous Fossils of Nebraska, 133. Botany and Zoology.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnzan Society, London, 134. —Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 135.—Sexual reproduction in Alge, 136,—Martius : Flora Braziliensis: Francois André Michaux, 137—Prof. Wm. H. Harvey: On three new Ferns from Californja and Oregon, by DanieEL C. Eaton: On a new species of Dinornis, 138.—A new species of turkey from Mexico, 139. Astronomy.—New Planets: Elements of the Planet Letitia, 140. Miscellaneous Intelligence —Ozone, 140.—On Ozone in the Atmosphere, by W. B. Rocrrs, 141.—The Tides at Ponape, or Ascension Island of the Pacific Occan, by L. Guuicx, M D., 142.—On a peculiar case of Color Blindness, by J. Tynpauu, F.R.S., 143.— Information to Students visiting Europe, 146.—Geographical Society at Paris, 148.—A Table showing the times of opening and closing of the Mississippi River, by T. S. Par- vin: Chemical Technology or Chemistry in its application to Arts and Manufactures, by Dr. Epmunp Ronatps and Dr. THomas Ricuarpson, 149.—Western Academy of Natural Sciences, Cincinnati, O.: American Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence: Mantell’s Medals of Creation: Transactions of the Connecticut State Agricul- tural Society, for the year 1855: The Art of Perfumery, and Method of obtaining the Odors of Plants, by G. W. Septimus Pirsse, 159.—Obituary.—Death of Dr. James G. Percival, 150.—The late Dr. John C. Warren, 151.—Daniel Sharpe, Esq., 152. NUMBER LXV. : Art. XII. On the Measurement of the Pressure of Fired Gun- powder in its Practical Applications; by Witt1am E. Woop- BRIDGE, M.D., : . - - a he - - 1538 XIII. Description of the Wax-paper process employed for the Photo-Meteorographic Registrations at the Radcliffe Obser- vatory ; by Wittiam Crookes, Esq., - - - - 159 CONTENTS. XIV. Ona Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle of Skye, Scotland; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D., - - - XV. On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. Crausivs, - - - . XVI. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States; by Asa Gray, - - - - - - - - - XVII. Letter on the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain; by Sir Ropericx I. Murcuison, : - : XVIII. Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with Notices of the Species found in Middle Tennessee; by Prof. J. M. Sar- ForD, A.M., - - - . eerie 4 A fs XIX. A new Fossil Shell in the Connecticut River Sandstone ; by E. Hitcucock, Jr, - - - : : : : XX. On the Eruption at Hawaii; by Rev. Titus Coan, - - XXI. On the Purification of Amorphous Phosphorus ; by M. Er- NEST NICKLES, . - - - : - - - XXII. Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy; by the Author, XXII. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicktts—Academy of Sciences—Death of M. Binet: Agricultural Universal Exhi- bition: Fecula of the Horse-chestnut, 264.—Astronomy : View of a part of the surface of the Moon, 265.—Meteor- ological System of France, 266.—Inundations: Electricity —Substitute for the copper wire in the construction of He- lices, 267.—Effects with Ruhmkorff’s Apparatus of Induc- tion: Electric Chronometers: Gas and Steam Manometer Alarm: On a Cause of Atmospheric Electricity, 268.— Bibliography, 269. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Page 179 180 204 232 236 239 240 244 246 Chemistry and Physics.—Some experiments in Electro-physiology, by Prof. Marrrucct, 270.—Selenium: Iodine, 271. Mineralogy and Geology.—Meteorie Iron of Thuringia, 271.—Meteoric Iron of Cape of Good Hope: Meteoric Stone of Mezo-Madaras in Siebenburg: On the Volcanoes of Southern Italy, 272.—On the Isthmus of Suez, by M Renaup, 273.—On the Mines of Mineral Coal in Peru, by M. E. pe Rivero, 274.--Waters of Lake Ooroomiah, by Henry Witt, 276.—On the Koh-i-Noor Diamond, 278.—On the origin of Greensand and its formation in the Ocean of the present epoch, by Prof. J. W. Batty, 280 — [See also, p. 296.] Botany and Zoology.-Wild Potatoes in New Mexico and Western Texas, 284.--Notes on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca: Cuma, 235.—-Insecta Maderensia, or Insects of the Maderian Group, by T. Vernon Wouuaston, M.A., F.R.S.: On the Variation of Species with especial reference to the Insecta, followed by an inquiry into the Na- ture of Genera, by the same, 236..-On the Fresh water Entomostraca of South America, by Joun Lussock, Esq., F.Z.S., 289. Z 7 “¥ vi CONTENTS. Astronomy.—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1856.-Astronomical Observatory at the University of Mississippi, 290. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—Observations on the climates of California, by GEORGE BarTLeTT, 291.—Apparatus for taking specific gravity, by Messrs. EckrgLpT and Dusols, 294.—Discovery of Paleozoic Fossils in Eastern Massachusetts, by Professor W. B. Rogers, 296.--Hailstorm in Guilford County, N. C., 298.--Monks Island or Colombian Guano, by Dr. A. S. Pracot, 299.—On the Monks Island Guano, by Dr. A. A. Hayes, 300.—Neo-Macropia: Artificial light for taking photographs, 300.—Wa- ters of the Dead Sea: Density of the Waters of the Caspian Sea, by A. Morirz : Well in the Desert of Sahara: Composition of the Water of the Delaware River, by Henry Wurtz: Aluminium: Officers of the Academy of Science for St. Louis, for 1856, 301.—Obitwary.—Professor John Locke, 301.—Manual of Coal and its Topog- raphy, by J. P. Lestry, 301.—A Treatise on Land Surveying, by Professor W. M. Giuuespi£, A.M.: Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, 302. --Manual of Blowpipe Analysis, for the use of Students, by Prof. WiLu1am EL- DERHORST: Notices of new Publications, 303. NUMBER LXVI. Art, XXIV. On American Geological History : Address before = the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August, 1855, by James D. Dana, - - : : - 3806 XXV. On the Plan of Development in the Geological History of North America, with a map; by James D. Dana, - - 3835 XXVI. Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Lithium; by Prot. J. W. MALiet, - - - - - - - 349 XXVII. On the Relations of the Fossil Fishes of the Sandstone of Connecticut and other Atlantic States to the Liassic and Oolitic Periods; by W. C. RepFrexp, - - - - 307 XXVIII. On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. Ciausius, - - - - 364 XXIX. Examination of the Meteoric [ron from xiuiine Mexico ; bys W. du Taviors +s - - - - - - - 374 _ XXX. On the Heat 1 in the Sun’s Rays; by Exvisua Foote, - 377 XXXI. Circumstances aente the Heat of the Sun’s Rays; by Eunice Foote, - - - - - - 382 XXXII. Review of a portion of the Goolonical Map of the United States and British Provinces by Jules Marcou; by Wini1am Pg GARE - - - - - > - 383 XXXIM. On New Fossil Corals from North Carolina; by E. Emmons, - - - - - - - - - 389 CONTENTS. Vil Page. XXXIV. Description of an Isopod Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas, with Observations on the New South Shetlands; by James Eicuts.—With two plates, - . - - - 391 XXXV. Description of a large Bowlder in the Drift of Amherst, Massachusetts, with parallel striz upon four sides; by Pro- fessor Epwarp Hitcucock, - - - - - - 397 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the wave lengths of the most refrangible rays of light in the Interference Spectrum, 400.--On the connection between the theorem of the equiva- lence of heat and work and the relations of permanent gases, 402.--On Ozone: Prepa- ration of Aluminum: On the conversion of carbonic oxyd into formic acid, and on the preparation of formic from oxalic acid, 403.--On the determination of chlorine by titri- tion, 404..-Reduction of aluminum from cryolite: Researches on the Fluorids, 405.— On two new methods of producing Urea artificially : On Acetylamin: The manufac- ture of Malleable Iron and Steel without Fuel, 406.—On some Dichromatic Phenomena among Solutions, and the means of representing them, by Dr. GLApDsToNE, 412.--On several new methods of detecting Strychnia and Brucia, by T. Horsey, 413. Geology.—-On the Spongeous Origin of the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk Formation, by J.S. Bowersank: On some Paleozoic Star fishes, compared with Living Forms, by J. W. SautTer, 415.—On the Physical Structure of the Earth, by Prof. Hennessy, 416. —On the Great Pterygotus (Seraphim) of Scotland, and other Species, by J. W. Sau TER, 417.--On the Bone Beds of the Upper Ludlow Rock, and the base of the Old Red Sand- stone, by Sir R. I. Murcuison, 418.--On a Fossil Mammal (Stereognathus ooliticus) from the Stonesfield Slate, by Prof. Owrn, 419 --On the Dichodon cuspidatus, from the Upper Eocene of the Isle of Wight and Hordwell, Hants, by Prof. OwEn, 420.—On a _ range of Volcanic Islets to the Southeast of Japan, by A. G. Frnpuay, 421.—On the New Red Sandstone Formation of Pennsylvania, by Isaac Lra, 422.—Descriptions of New Species of Acephala and Gasteropoda, from the Tertiary formations of Nebraska - Territory, with some general remarks on the Geology of the country about the sources of the Missouri River, by F. B. Mex and F. V. Haypen, M.D., 423. Botany and Zoology.—Alph. DeCandolle : Géographie Botanique raisonnée, ou Exposition des Faites principaux et des Lois concernant la Distribution Géographique des Plantes de l’Epoque Actuelle, 429.—Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 432.—Bentham, Notes on Loganiacee, 433.—The Flowers of the Pea-Nut, 435.--Martius, Flora Brasiliensis: L,. R. Tulasne, Monographia Monimiacearum, 436.—Chloris Andina, Essai d’une Flore de la Region Alpine des Cordilléres de l’Amerique du Sud, par H. A. WEDDELL, M.D. . Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, by Prof. Asa Gray, 437.--Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Mollusca of California, by Rev. P. Car- PENTER, 438.—On the Vital Powers of the Spongiade, by Mr. Bowrrsanx, 439.— Gar-pikes, 440, Astronomy.—New Planets, Harmonia, 440.—Daphne : Isis, 441. Miscellaneous Intelligence——American Association for the Advancement of Sconce: 441. —The Meteor of July 8th, by W. Sriuuman, 448.--Sulphuric Acid Barometer: Can- tonite: British Association: American Geological History, 449.—Obituary.—Rev. Dr. Buckland, 449.—Geology of the Pacific and other regions visited by the U. S. Explor- ing Expedition under C. Wilkes, U. S. N., in the years 1838-1842, by Jamzs D. Dana: Vill CONTENTS. A Chronological Table of Cyclonic Hurricanes, by ANDRES Pory, 452.-~Description of some Remains of Fishes from the Carboniferous and Devonian Formations of the United States, by JosrrH Leipy: The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathe- matics, edited by J. J. Sy_vester, M.A., F.R.S.: Fossils of South Carolina, by M. Tuomey and F.S. Hotmes: Abhandlungen der Kaiserlich-KGniglichen Geologische Reichsanstalt, 453.—Geognostiche Darstellung der Steinkohlen-formation in Sachsen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Rothliegenden, von Hanns Bruno GEINITZ: Das Normal Verhiltniss der chemischen und morphologischen Proportionen, von ADOLF ZEIs1NG, 154.—Principles of Chemistry, by Prof. Joun A. Porter, M.A., M.D., 455. List of Works, 455. Index, 456. ERRATA. P. 1, line 2 from bottom, for *Dictyopyxis read Dietyopyxis; 1. 4 from bottom, for Dicla- dia, read *Dicladia : p. 2, ‘lines 1 and 2 from top, for *Coseinodiscus, read Coscinodiscus ; 1. 2 from top, for Rhizosolenia, read *Khizosolenia ; 1. > from top, for Difflugia, read *Dif- flugia ; 1. 16 from top, for Eucyrtidium, read *EKucyrtidium, in both cases. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. I.—WNotice of Microscopic Forms found in the soundings of the Sea of Kamtschatka—with a plate; by Prof. J. W. BAILEY. In the American Journal of Science, vol. xxi, p. 284 an account was given of some of the results of the microscopic examination of the soundings obtained in the sea of Kamtschatka, by Lieut. Brooke of the U.S. Navy. These soundings which ranged from 900 fathoms to 2700 fathoms in depth are, as was stated (I. c. p. 284), very rich in the siliceous remains of Diatoms, Polyeistins, and Spongiolites, but have yielded no traces of the calcareous shells of the Polythalamia. A perfect agreement was also found to exist in the nature of their organic contents, almost every species noticed having been found, and in about equal abundance, in each of the soundings. The only difference no- ticed was in the proportion of the mineral matter, which was least in the deepest soundings. The organic contents of the above mentioned soundings as far as they have been determined are given im the following list. The species distinguished by a star are believed to be 1 new and are described in the subsequent pages. List of Organic Forms found in the soundings of the Sea of Kamtschatka. DIATOMACEAE. Actiniscus Sirius, hr. Denticella aurita Hhr., fig. 26 to 28. *Asteromphalus Brookei B., ee} 1. Dicladia Mitra B., fig. 6. *Chaetoceros furcillatum B., , fig. 4 Dictyocha Speculum Fhr. *Coscinodiscus borealis B. *Dictyopyxis cruciata Lhr. * erassus B, Gallionella sulcata Zhr. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856, 1 2 J. W. Bailey on Microscopic Forms in the Sea of Kamtschatka. *Coscinodiscus eccentricus Hhr. Gyrosigma t * ¢ lineatus Hhr. Rhizosolenia hebetata B., fig. 18, 19. * Oculus Iridis Zhr. Syndendrium Diadema, several varieties. ‘ subtilis Hhr. Pinnularia peregrina Hhr. *Cyclotella pertenuis B. Synedra Denticula? lauta B, Triceratium. q Inrusorta, Ruizopopa? *Cadium marinum B.,, fig. 2. Difflugia? marina B., fig. 7. POLYCISTINEAA. *Ceratospyris ? borealis B,, fig. 3. *Halicalyptra? cornuta B., fig. 13, 14. Cornutella clathrata 8 profunda *Haliomma?! pyriformis B., fig. 29. Ehr., fig. 23. *Lithobotrys inflatum B., fig. 15. *Cornutella annulata B., fig. 5, a, b. *Perichlamidium venustum B., fig. 16, 17. *Dictyophimus? gracilipes B.,, fig. 8. *Stylodictya stellata B., fig. 20. *Eucyrtidium aquilonaris B., fig. 9. *Kucyrtidium hyperboreum B., fig. 10. 4 cuspidatum B., fig. 12. é turgidulum B., fig. 11. ZOOLITHARIA.* Spongolithis acicularis Hhr. *Spongolithis clavata B. fig. 21. id aspera Hhr. < uncinata Hhr. “ clavus hr. = e orthogona B., fig. 22. PoLYTHALAMIA. Not even a fragment of any of the Polythalamia has been detected by me in these soundings. Description of the new species referred to in the above list. Asteromphalus Brookei B. Plate I, fig. 1. Discs slightly con- vex; umbilical rays (7 to 18 or more), flexuose, some simple others branched, or two or more uniting before reaching the centre. Diametert 2™ to 4™, (=:002” to 004”). This is a very beautiful species which I take pleasure in dedi- cating to Lieut. Brooke of the U.S. Navy, who by means of his ingenious device for obtaining deep sea bottoms, has added this and many other interesting forms to the treasures of the micro- scopist. ‘This species appears to be distinguished from any of the Antarctic species described by Ehrenberg, by the branched char- acter of a portion of its umbilical rays. The number of rays in my specimens varies from seven to thirteen, but specimens differ- ing in the number of rays agree so closely in every other charac- ter that I do not believe that the number of rays is a character of specific importance in this genus, and the same remark will apply to the allied forms of Asterolampra, Heliopelta, Actinoptychus, Actinocyclus, &e. | The genus Asteromphalus may reach its maximum in the polar seas, having been found by Hhrenberg to exist in great * Ehrenberg refers the silicious spiculae of sponges to Phytolitharia, but the animal nature of sponges now appears to be generally admitted. + The micro-unit which I employ is =,4,5th of an English inch, and I express the dimensions in integers and fractions of this unit, thus 347 = -00325’’. J. W. Bailey on Microscopic Forms in the Sea of Kamtschatka. 3 abundance in the Antarctic ocean, but it is not confined to high latitudes, as a species occurs in considerable numbers in soundings from the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Gulf Stream. CaDIUM, nov. gen. Animal unknown (a Rhizopod?). Shell siliceous! ovoidal, with a bent beak and circular aperture. Cadium marinum B. PI.I, fig. 2. Shell with numerous merid- ian lines, of which about twelve are visible at once, Length 2m, Diameter 14”, I propose the genus Cadium to include some small shells whose siliceous nature I have fully proved, and which occur in the above mentioned soundings, as well as in the Gulf Stream. In the specimen figured, from ten to twelve longitudinal strize were seen at once on the upper surface of the shell, but i some specimens from.the Gulf Stream the striz were about twice as numerous. Ceratospyris boreaks B. Pl. 1, fig. 3. Shell semi-globose, flattened and spinose at base composed of a coarse net-work of strong rounded bars. Cells or perforations large, unequal. Diameter 5™ to 6™. Height 4 to 5™. Cheetoceres furcillatum B. PI.I, fig. 4. Shells very minute, with the sete of adjoining frustules closely approximate and nearly parallel for a portion of their length, then diverging and afterwards becoming nearly parallel. Length of the body, 02m to 0-4™, Total length including sete about 2™. This species which is one of the minutest of its genus is quite common in the Sea of Kamtschatka and I have also found it in mud taken from _ the head of a whale captured in the sea of Ochotsk. Cornutella? annulata B. Pl. I, fig. 5, ab. Shell elongated, digitiform or somewhat conical, with a rounded apex and termi- nal spine. Cells or perforations arranged in transverse lines, four to six being visible at once in each ring. Length 8™ to 6™, Length of spine 4™. Cosconodiscus Oculus Iridis? Hhr. In these soundings there is a considerable number of large Coscinodisci identical with a species occurring fossil at Richmond, Virginia, which I suppose to be C. Oculus Iridis of Khrenberg, but Ehrenberg’s figure of that species in Mikrogeologie pl. xvii, fig. 42, was probably drawn from a small specimen; as the species both in the recent and fossil species often acquires a size not much inferior to that of Coscinodiscus Gigas. My measurements of specimens in these soundings give its diameter as 11™ to 12™, and the cells where largest were 8 in 1™, measured in the direction of the radii. The si or rosette of the centre is formed by six or more polygonal cells. Coscinodiscus borealis B. (Not figured.) Disc having at its depressed centre, a conspicuous star formed of about six large cells. The rest of the surface covered with interruptedly radiant lines of prominent hexagonal cells, which increase regularly from near the centre to the convex margin of the shell. 4 J. W. Bailey on Microscopic Forms in the Sea of Kamtschatka. Diameter 7™ to 8". Largest cells 5 to 6 in 1™. This resembles the preceding, but the cells forming the star are pore rounded and the other cells are larger than in C. Oculus idis. | Coscinodiscus crassus B. (Not figured.) Disc without a central star, covered with interruptedly radiant lines of large prominent hexagonal cells with circular pores, cells increasing slightly in size towards the margin of the shell. _A common species in these soundings, and also found fossil at Monterey, California. Cyclotella pertenuis B. (Not figured). Shell minute, slightly convex, very thin, with very minute cells or dots arranged in a radiant manner. Diameter about 2™. Cells 30 or 40 to 1™, arranged so as to produce radiant lines and eccentric curves. The markings are scarcely visible by an excellent $-mch objective, but become quite distinct under a 4-inch objective when seen by oblique heht. Dicladia Mitra B. PI, fig. 6. Shell having two conical horns coalescing below into a conical base, and bearing branched pro- cesses above. Diameter of base 1™ to 14m, Height including the processes 14™. Difflugia? marina B. Pl. I, fig. 7. Shell siliceous, ovoidal or lagenoid, with a contracted neck and circular aperture. Surface divided by oblique lines into quadrilateral spaces. Length 244, Diameter 14”. A single specimen of this shell was found in soundings from the depth of 2750 fathoms which had been cleaned with acids. Its siliceous nature is therefore certain. It is probably the shell of a Rhizopod allied to Difflugia, but as I beheve that all the known species of that genus are fluviatile, it is doubtful whether this form should be associated with them. Dictyophimus gracilipes B. Pl. I, fig. 8. Shell triquetrous, head rounded, bearing a terminal spine. Body or second articu- lation having large unequal cells, and three acute ridges pro- longed into long acute basal spines. Length including spines 43™. Cells 3 to 4 in 1™. Hucyrtidium aquilonaris B. Pl. I, fig. 9. Shell with a rounded head and three (or more?) inflated articulations having large cells or perforations arranged in transverse rows, the spaces be- tween the cells being irregularly granulate. Lower cell abruptly contracted at base and prolonged into a neck. Length 5™ to 6™, Diameter of lower articulation 3 to 4™. Hucyrtidium hyperboreum B. Pl. 1, fig. 10. Shell somewhat cylindrical, with a rounded head and three to five (or more?) articulations. Surface marked with longitudinal ridges bearing minute granules. Cells or perforations in transverse rows, often nearly obsolete. J. W. Bailey on Microscopic Forms in the Sea of Kamstchatha. 5 Length 4™. Diameter 2”. This shell resembles some of the varieties of HK. lineatum of Ehrenberg, but differs in having the cells much less distinct, the walls thicker, and the surface with a reticulated appearance due to the small elevations or granules placed upon the longitudinal ridges. Bastritainm tumidulum B. Pl. I, fig. 11. Shell subfusiform ; head rounded, without spines; articulations three or more, each having from four to six transverse rows of large cells of nearly uniform size arranged in a decussating manner. Length 4™, Diameter 2™. Cells 4 to 5 in 1™. A species closely resembling this is common in the Atlantic soundings. Hucyrtidium cuspidatum B. Pl. I, fig. 12. Shell conical with eight or more articulations, head rounded and bearing a long curved setiform process. Length of shell 6. Length of setula 5™ to 6™. In the Atlantic soundings is found a species closely resembling this, except that it has not been seen with the setiform process. I have called it C. Tritonis. Halicalyptra? cornuta B. P1.I, fig. 18-14. Shell dome shaped or campanulate, with a rounded head, armed with two spines. Second articulation (or body) having large cells or openings arranged in transverse and decussating rows. Length 4™ to 6™. Diameter at base 8% to 4m. Cells nearly 1™ in diameter near the base of cell, and showing four to five in each transverse row. Lithobotrys inflatum B. Pl. I, fig. 15. Shell ovoidal, head composed of two or three small rounded cells. Body with one large inflated cell with a slight transverse constriction. Surface with cells of unequal size. Length 8™. Diameter 13”, Perichlamidium venustum B. Pl. I, fig. 16 and 17. Shell discoidal with a thickened spongiform central mass, and a broad cellulose margin with numerous rays prolonged into projecting spines. FDcamote 10™ to 15™. Width of margin 1™ to 2™., This shell is not rare in these soundings, and is, I believe, the first of its genus that has been found in the recent state. filizosolenia hebetata B. Pl. I, fig. 18,19. Shell calyptriform, punctate, with a smooth cylindrical base. Apex expanded, lat- erally compressed and having a rounded and retuse end. This is one of the most common forms in these soundings, and also occurs in the sea of Ochotsk. The punctate conical portions are most frequently seen, but specimens with the cylindrical base are occasionally found. Stylodictya stellata B. Pl.J, fig. 20. Shell with five or more concentric rings, the outer one armed with short spines. 6 S. W. Johnson on two Sugars from California. Diameter 5™ to 6”. I believe this to be a Stylodictya rather than a Flustrella in consequence of indications that the spines radiate from the centre, and are not mere marginal appendages. Spongolithis ? clavata B. Pl. I, fig. 21. Club-shaped, fistulous, with a rounded head bearing numerous tubular spines. Spongolithis? orthogona B. Pl. I, fig. 22. Composed of three bars crossing each other at right angles, each bar perforate, smooth near the centre, and enlarging towards each end into a club-shaped portion densely beset with short spines. Both these forms, which I have referred with some hesitation to Spongolithis, are certainly siliceous and not calcareous forms as they completely resist the action of acids. The position and depth of the soundings in which the above Species were detected are as follows: ) No. 1. Sea bottom 2700 fathoms, lat 56° 46’ N, long. 168° 18’ H, brought up by Lieut. Brooke with Brooke’s lead. _ No. 2. Sea bottom 1700 fathoms, lat 60° 15’ N, long. 170° 58’ EK, brought up as above July 26th, 1855. No. 8. Sea bottom 900 fathoms, temperature (deep sea) 32° Saxton. Lat. 60° 30’ N, long. 175° E. By consulting the drift chart in Maury’s Physical Geography of the Sea (Pl. LX) it will be seen that the above positions are in the region where the drift is from the north, and the species themselves appear to be of a northern type, differing decidedly as a group from those found at Japan or along the coast of Oregon and California. : Art. I.—Kxamination of two Sugars (Panoche and Pine Sugar) from Califorma; by SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, SomE time since I received from Wm. P. Blake, Esq., Geolo- gist of the Pacific R. R. survey, two substances collected by him, with the following notice of their occurrence, &c. “Tbe sugar which I send you is collected by the Indians of the Tefou in California, from the surface of the leaves of a tall reed or cane which grows abundantly along the streams and low moist places of that valley. ‘The canes are cut and then beaten over hides spread upon the ground. The sugar is thus detached from the plants, and mingled as it is with fragments of the leaves and stalks, is made into thick cakes which are afterwards covered with a neatly woven mat made of tulé or round rushes tightly bound together. ‘This sugar is known as Panoche, and is much liked by the Indians. It is also used by settlers and emigrants when without a superior article, for sweetening their coffee. The S. W. Johnson on two Sugars from California. 7 sample I send you, was taken from one of the cakes which had been partly used, but still weighed several pounds. Its color was white or gray, with a greenish tinge, probably imparted to it by the leaves and other impurities. It was not crystalline or granu- lar, but in consistency was more like partly hardened molasses- candy but was not so adhesive or sticky. It had a peculiar sweet _ taste, somewhat saline as if it contained a portion of common salt. A part of the mass dissolved in water showed the presence of a large amount of impurities, and among them, numerous re- mains of the Aphis or green-fly. I concluded that these little vermin were the manufacturers of the sugar; an opinion, which I afterwards confirmed to my own satisfaction, by seeing great numbers of these insects on cane leaves made glossy with their excrements. This is probably the source of the Sugar; its accumulation being favored by the long dry season without any rain to wash the leaves. The other sample I send, is called ‘ Pine-sugar,’ and exudes in considerable quantities from a species of pine growing abundantly in the forests on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. ‘This is probably Mannite.” The Panoche, as placed in my hands, had entirely lost its solid- ity, and was mostly absorbed into the numerous papers that had been wrapped about the original mass. In addition to a peculiar odor reminding of figs, it had a strong acetic smell. It was digested in warm water, and the solution filtered and pressed from the paper, fragments of mat, and other impurities; the liquid was evaporated at a gentle heat, and yielded a thick syrup, not distinguishable in appearance and sweetness, from the poorer qual- ities of West India molasses; but it left on the tongue a disa- greeable, bitter, and quite lasting after-taste. I was unable to separate any crystallizable sugar from this syrup. It gave with the usual tests, the reaction of a mixture of cane and grape sugars. The alteration it had undergone while in Mr. Blake’s possession is not a little remarkable, and it appears that when he procured it, it was already in a state of change, for he informs me in a recent note, that there is in the U. S. Patent Office a specimen of sugar of the same origin which is in the solid form, resembling a cake of maple sugar. Is this change of consistency due to a humid atmosphere, or to continued motion? I have observed a similar change in a cake of maple sugar which was carried from this country to Europe. It was originally a firm hard mass, but after the journey it had become quite soft, and the thick paper envelope was thoroughly saturated with molasses. The Pine Sugar had the form of rounded, rough nodules, half an inch and more in diameter; some were nearly white, others were of a brown color. They were almost completely soluble in water and in boiling alcohol, yielding a reddish brown liquid. The alcoholic solution was partially decolorized by bone black, and a 8 S. W. Johnson on two Sugars from California. 4 quantity of ether added to it, which caused a dense milkiness, After some hours globular or stellate deposits of white and mostly opaque crystals were formed on the sides and bottom of the vessel, while the liquid became clear. If too much ether was added a small quantity of syrup of uncrystallizable sugar (?) gath- ered in globules at the bottom of the liquid. The crystals thus obtained were further purified by recrystalli- zation, they possess a pure and intense sweet taste, are very hard, brittle, and unless pulverized, dissolve but slowly in boiling alco- hol. In the mother liquors accumulated a substance of bitter taste. After having procured these crystals in a state of purity and remarked their non-identity with mannite, &., Berthelot’s paper on several new sugars (Compt. Rend. 1855, No. 12, p. 452, t. xu1,) came to hand. ‘This chemist describes the body im question under the name of Prnite. He relates that it is yielded by the Pinus lambertiana of California, and exudes from cavities made by the aid of fire, near the roots of the tree. According to Berthelot, ‘‘it possesses right polarization and is incapable of fer- mentation even after treatment with sulphuric acid. Its analysis led to the formula CizHi2010. Acetate of lead-oxyd ammonia precipitates from its solutions the compound C12H12010 4Pb.0. It is isomeric with Quercite, but differs from that body im erystal form, and has greater solubility and sweetness.” The quantity at my disposal was so small that I only attempted to make an ultimate analysis; my results were slightly vitiated by the fracture of the combustion tube, after the burning was complete, but be- fore the COz had been fully carried into the potash bulbs. Below are the obtained numbers compared with those required by Berthelot’s formula. Cale. Found | Cis Saw 43°90 42°75 Oo = 50) 48-78 49°85 164 100-00 100-00 In another paper, Berthelot describes a large number of com- pounds of sugars with acids. Among these are the acid and neutral stearates and benzoates of Pimite. He has further found that when these compounds are saponified there is obtaimed the original acid, and, not pinite, but a substance which gradually passes into pinite. The name pinite is very objectionable, as identical in orthogra- phy with one appellation of a mineral which is overloaded with synonyms. On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series. 9 ArT. I1.—On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Se- ries; by MM. VALENCIENNES and FREemy.* THE articles lately published by us on the composition of egos, show-that a comparative study of subjects related in or- ganization, running through the different classes of the animal kingdom, is always a source of much interest alike to zoology and chemistry. Taking up the eggs of the principal groups of animals, we pointed out fundamental differences in composition which zoology should hereafter regard, and besides, we gave the general characteristics of a new class of organic substances, des- ignated by us under the name of vitellin substances, which chemistry and physiology cannot confound with the albuminous substances. Associating still our labors—which enables us to handle ques- tions within the provinces both of zoology and chemistry,—we have proposed to ourselves to extend to the muscular fibre the mode of research which we have bestowed on eggs, that is, to endeavor to exhibit, by a comparative study, the differences of the muscles in chemical composition. A general examination of the whole animal series should then give us tolerably pre- cise notions of the nature of the proximate principles found in the muscular fibre, as well as of the analytical processes by which they may be isolated. Through our joint research, we have established several im- — portant facts which are brought out in this our first communica- tion on the subject. The muscular fibre of the vertebrate animals, which we first examined, was separated with the greatest care by anatomical processes from the white aponeurotic or tendinous fibres, from the nervous cords, the principal blood vessels, and also from the fat which it contains in considerable amount. The proximate principle which first appears in the analysis of the muscles of the Vertebrata is creatin, the discovery of which, as is well known, is due to M. Chevreul. Then come inosic acid and crea- tinin, which have been described with so much discrimination and care by M. Liebig. In this part of our researches, we can only confirm the labors of the well known chemists just named. We will mention, however, that creatinin appears to us more abundant in the animal economy than is generally supposed ; we have ascertained its presence in the muscular fibre of almost all the Vertebrata; it is often found in a free state, and is shown by a very marked alkaline reaction; we have found it too com- bined with phosphoric acid. Our attention was next drawn to * Translated from the Journal de Pharmacie for December, 1855, p. 401, &c., by Dr. J. Rosengarten. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 2 10 On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series. the substance which gives acidity to the muscles of all the Verte- brata, we thought it of interest to isolate this principle and to analyze it. The result of our researches in this direction is, that if in some cases, the acidity of the muscles is due to lactic acid, that which makes the muscular fibre strongly acid is ordinarily a phosphate of potash, having, according to our analysis, the for- mula, KO, 2HO, PO*. We obtained this salt in a crystallized condition by treating the muscles with weak alcohol and evapo- rating the liquor to a syrupy consistence. While determining the proportion of this salt in the muscles of different animals, we observed evidence of some connection with the formation of the osseous system; that 1s, we always found it largely in animals in which the bones are very much developed, and very slightly m the Articulata and Mollusca. The part which this salt takes in the formation of bones is now clear; for we have directly ascertamed that in reacting on car- bonate of lime, the phosphate of potash from the muscles, forms the basic phosphate of lime, which is so considerable a part of the bony substance. This phosphate of potash is not, per- haps, without effect in the production of a phosphuretted fatty matter that exists in the muscles, which will be mentioned far- ther on; we think, however, that under these circumstances, it deserves the attention of physiologists. The muscles of the ver- tebrated animals are impregnated with a considerable quantity of fatty bodies made up of varying proportions of olein, margarin, and stearin. Besides these neutral fatty bodies, another is always found, which differs from the substances properly called fat by a number of peculiarities, and presents some analogy to the cere- bral fat. We have made a tolerably complete examination of this interesting substance. It was extracted easily by treating the muscles with weak alcohol, which dissolves it without alter- ing the other fatty bodies. This liquid, when evaporated, gives, a viscous amber-colored substance, which partly dissolves in water; treated «with sulphuric acid, it decomposes like a soap, giving sulphate of soda and an acid heavier than water. This acid contains both azote and phosphorus; analyzed, it afforded exactly the composition which one of us obtained from the cere- bral fat, called oleophosphoric acid. The phosphuretted fat which exists in the muscles, is therefore identical with that which is found so plentifully in the brain, and is produced, like the latter, by the combination of soda and oleo- phosphoric acid. This substance can now be said to be found in every part of the animal organization. We have established that its proportion in the muscular tissue increases with the age of the animal, and it is as various as the different species of the verte- brate animals. Fishes, such as the whiting, the dab, the floun- der, have only a very small proportion, while species haying a On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series. 11 compact body, with a strong taste, generally difficult to digest, like the mackerel” herring, trout, and, most of all, salmon, have a large quantity. It is this phosphuretted substance which, by de- composing incompletely through the action of heat, gives to broiled fish its characteristic smell. While studying this substance in the muscles of fish, we have been naturally led to examine the red matter which colors the muscles of salmon, that which, in trout and some other fish, pro- duces the ‘sawmonage.’ This remarkable change of color is partly dependent on the phenomenon of reproduction. The salmon, for instance, is red-skinned all the year, but its muscles become per- ceptibly paler at the time of spawning. This discoloration is still more distinct in trout, for when they spawn the skin becomes quite white. While the spawning does not occur at the same time, the female ‘salmons’ itself a deeper red, and keeps this color longer than the male; and often in the same stream there are taken white trout and salmon trout. This shows too that the salmon trout is not the mongrel of the trout and salmon; besides, the fecundation of one of these fish by the other is out of the question since the salmon spawns in July and rarely in Au- gust, while the trout spawns in December. | The coloring matter of the muscles of a salmon attracted the attention of Sir Humphrey Davy; in the work by this famous chemist, entitled Salmonia, it is said that the skin of a salmon ean be discolored by ether. But even till now, this coloring matter has not been isolated. It is this which we attempt to - accomplish. From our researches, we find this coloring matter to be of a fatty nature, presenting the characteristics of a weak acid, which we call salmonic acid, and that it dissolves in a neutral oil. In order to isolate salmonic acid, we used the following means: the red oil which is easily got from the muscles of a sal- mon by a press, was agitated cold with alcohol feebly ammoni- ated; the oil then becomes colorless, and the alcohol takes the coloring matter, which is separated by decomposing the ammoni- acal salt with an acid. The acid thus obtained is viscous, red, and presents all the characteristics of a fatty acid; itis the same in the salmon-trout as in the muscles of a salmon. We have found it in considerable quantity and mixed with oleophosphoric acid in the eggs of salmon, which partly accounts for the discolora- tion and loss of smell in the flesh of a salmon when it lays. The female of the Salmo hamatus Val., does not afford as much acid, either salmonic or oleophosphoric, as the common sal- mon (Salmo salmo Val.): the muscles of fish show therefore in Species most nearly allied appreciable differences in their compo- sition. It was of interest to compare the muscles of Crustacea with those of fish. In order to work at the muscular flesh of the for- 12 On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series. mer, pure and without any mixture of other organs, we chose the mass of muscles bundled together im the tail, taking care to put aside the extremity of the intestinal canal and the nervous cord which follows it. The muscles thus prepared, were submitted to the action of different solvents, especially alcohol and ether. They proved to be simpler in composition than those of the Mammalia, and pre- sented some analogy to the muscles of fish. The phosphate of potash which is so largely found in the former, hardly occurs in the Crustacea; the oleophosphoric acid exists’ however in as con- siderable quantity as in the muscles of fish. We obtained also creatin and creatinin from the muscles of several different kinds of crustaceous animals. To complete this general study of the muscles of different ani- mals, 1t remaimed to examine the Mollusca, which on analysis, afforded a remarkable and unlooked for fact. To enable us to compare these analytical results with those we had arrived at in the other animals, we used great care in the preparation of the museular tissue of the mollusks intended for our experi- ments. For example, in working on the large muscle of the Cephalopods, we took away the bone of the cuttle fish, and the tail of the ‘calmar,’ we put aside all the membranes which touch the cavity enclosing the secretions, and we raised the cartilages which operate on the corresponding tubercles of the body, in the movements of these large muscles. In the acephalous molluscs we took only the large abductor muscles of the valves. In one word, avoiding all the products of the secretions, and all the or- gans of complex composition so plentiful in these animals, which are so often called simple bodies, our analyses were applied to the pure muscular fibre of the Mollusca, from the order of the Ceph- alopoda to that of the Acephala. The delicacy of the prepara- tions had a great influence on the nicety of the analytic results which we are now to make known. The muscles of mollusks presented a much simpler compo- sition than those of the vertebrated animals, for they do not contain any appreciable quantity of phosphate of potash, of oleo- phosphoric acid, of creatin or of creatinm: these proximate principles are replaced by a crystalline material which is ob- tained as plentifully from oysters as from the cuttle-fish, and may be called a characteristic of the muscles of these animals. It 1s much more soluble in boiling water than in cold, imsoluble in al- cohol and ether, combines with neither acids nor bases, and resists the action of nite acid. When submitted to the action of heat, it gives all the products which result from the decomposition of organic azotized substances, and with sulphuric acid, affords both the sulphite and the sulphate of ammonia. The presence of sul- phur in the crystalline matter of the mollusks has been confirmed by the analyses, which resulted thus: On the Composition of the Muscles in the Animal Series. 13 : - - - - 19°5 . - - . sD - - - - - 10°5 . - . - - 24:0 . . - - 00 100:0 These analytical data with the other characteristics, show that the substance from mollusks is identical with a very remarkable material discovered by Gmelin in the bile of the vertebrated ani- mals, which he calls tawrmne. To give the last degree of certainty to this interesting fact we asked M. de Senarmont to determine the crystalline form of the substance obtained from the mollusks; sid his crystallographic determination is a further confirmation of the identity of taurine from the bile, and that from the muscles of oysters and cuttle- fish. The presence in the muscles of mollusks of a substance containing 25 per cent of sulphur, which till now has been found only in the bile, is an important physiological fact; and it seem to us probable, that by directing attention to taurine, the ideas which have hitherto been expressed as to the function of this interesting substance may be modified. ‘Taurine, in the dis- tinctness of its crystalline forms, may be compared to urea, and it presents both chemically and physiologically some analogy to that base of animal orig. Both have been artificially produced. M. Strecker has shown that isethionate of ammonia, when heated, © produces taurine. It has always been supposed that this sub- stance was a result of the decomposition of sulphuric acid in the bile, and it has been looked upon as an original substance in the body. We think that the results published in this article, are likely to modify these opinions, showing that taurine does not originate in the liver, and that it is much more abundant in the animal organization than was generally supposed. These are the chief facts which we present. Although in this first essay we have examined only a few of the proximate principles of muscles, and have analyzed but a small part of the different groups of the animal series, yet the results confirm a general fact of great importance, set forth in our essay on eggs: namely, that analytical chemistry, while cor- roborating to some extent the principles which from the first have been used in zoological classification, establishes as a new eriterion of distinction, the existence of different substances in animals that are fundamentally different in organization. OuZz Ha wee i d 14 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. Arr. IV.—A Review of the Classification of Orustacea with refer- ence to certain principles of Classification; by JAMES D. DANA.* THE class Crustacea exhibits a clearness of outline in its types, and a display of relations, transitions, and distinctions, among its several groups, exceeding any other department of the animal kingdom. This fact arises from the very great range in structure occupied by the species. ‘T'he limits in size exceed those of any other class, exclusive of the Radiata; the length varying from nearly two feet to a small fraction of a line, the largest exceed- ing the smallest lineally more than a thousand-fold. In the structure of the limbs, the diversity is most surprising, for even the jaws of one division may be the only legs of another; the number of pairs of legs may vary from fifty to one, or none. The antennz may be either simple organs of sense or organs of locomotion and prehension; and the joints of the body may be widely various in number and form. In the branchial and the internal systems of structurey the variety is equally remarkable ; for there may be large branchize, or none; a heart, or none; a system of distinct arterial vessels, or none; a pair of large liver glands, or but rudiments of them; a series of ganglions in the nervous cord, or but one ganglion for the whole body. | Taking even a single natural group, the Decapods ;—the abdo- men may be very small, without appendages, and flexed beneath the broad cephalothorax out of view, or it may be far the larger part of the body, and furnished with several pairs of large natatory appendages ;—the inner antenne may be very small, and retractile into fissures fitted to receive them, or they may be very long organs, constantly thrown forward of the head; and descending but a single step, we come to species of Decapoda without proper branchiz, some having the abdominal legs fur- nished with branchial appendages, and others with no abdominal members at all. When we consider, that these diversities occur in a class that may not embrace in all over ten thousand species (not half of which are now known), we then comprehend the wide diversity in the distinctions that exist. The series of species followed through, gives us an enlarged view of those distinctive charac- teristics upon which the limits and relations of groups depend. The network of affiliations, it is true, is like that in other de- partments; but it is more magnified to the view. Moreover, the distinctions are obviously distinctions of rank. There is no ambiguity as to which is the higher or superior group, as among Insects. The variations are manifestly varia- tions in grade, and we may readily trace out the several steps * From the author’s Expl. Exped. Report on Crustacea, Vol. II, pp. 13895—1437. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 15 of gradation, as we descend from the highest Brachyura to the lowest Lernza. And while we so readily distinguish these gra- dations, we as plainly see that they are not steps of progress fol- lowed by nature in the production of species; but, simply suc- cessive levels (grades of types), upon which species have been multiplied. We, therefore, may consider the class Crustacea as especially well adapted for instruction in some of the higher principles of classification in Zoology; and, if we mistake not, laws may be educed which have not hitherto taken form in science. ‘I'hese have already been partially alluded to in the previous pages of this Report. But we here bring together the facts in a con- nected view, in order to state the principles more definitely, and exhibit the full extent of their bearing. We leave out, how- ever, a large part of the details, which may be found elsewhere in the work. T'he fundamental idea, which we shall find at the basis of the various distinctions of structure among the species is, the higher centrahzation of the superior grades, and the less concentrated central Jorces of the inferior,—a principle which has been applied to the animal kingdom in some of its larger subdivisions, but which has not been followed out into all the details of structure exem- plified among Crustacea. This centralization is literally a cephalization of the forces. In the higher groups, the larger part of the whole structure is cen- tred in the head, and contributes to head functions, that is, the | functions of the senses and those of the mouth. As we descend, the head loses one part after another, and with every loss of this kind, there is a step down in rank. This centralization may be looked for in the nervous cords; but the facts are less intelligi- bly studied there, than in the members, the production and po- sition of which measure the condition of the forces :—just as we can better measure the forces of a galvanic battery by the work done, than by the size or external appearance of the plates which constitute it. In the Crustacea type, there are normally twenty-one seg- ments to the body, and correspondingly twenty-one pairs of members,—as laid down by Milne Edwards,—the last seven of which pertain to the abdomen, and the first fourteen to the ceph- alothorax. Now, we may gather from an examination of the crab, or Macroural Decapod, acknowledged to be first in rank, what condition of the system is connected with the highest cen- tralization in Crustacea. In these highest species, nine segments and nine pairs of appendages out of the fourteen cephalothoracic, belong to the senses and mouth, and only jive pairs are for locomotion. Of these nine, three are organs of senses, six are the mandibles and 16 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. maxilla. Moreover, these organs are clustered into the smallest possible space, so that the six pairs of mouth organs hardly oc- cupy more room than the first pair of legs. ‘The organs are all small, the antenne exceedingly short, the maxille small lamellar organs sparingly jointed. The vegetative powers of growth have had but little play. The inner antenne are rather large as regards the basal joint, which is devoted to one of the senses, but the rest is nearly rudimentary, and the whole is snugly boxed away, to be extruded at the will of the animal. The ex- terior maxille (or outer maxillipeds) cover exactly the other pairs, and shut closely down over the mouth, like a well-fitting operculum to the buccal area. We hence learn, that the condition of highest centralization in Crustacea, is where the cephalic part embraces the largest portion of the normal structure of the cephalothorax, and the whole is contracted within the smallest compass, with the least vegetative growth or elongation of the parts. The forces are concentrated in the more perfectly developed senses and the higher functions of the animal—not in giving size to the organs of the senses, but acuteness to the sensorial function. 'The per- fection of the senses is evinced by the small antennz; for we infer therefrom, not only that the organ is exclusively an organ of sense, but also, that the delicacy of the sense itself is such, as not to require a long-jointed appendage to aid the function. This cephahzation of the animal is farther observed in the structure of the rest of the thorax and the abdomen. The ab- domen, in the first place, is reduced to its minimum size. Vege- tative elongation is here cut short, as in the anterior part of the animal; and the sphere of growth has a narrow limit, owing to the very intensity of its concentration; and we find that the limit widens as the intensity diminishes. Again: the central power is indicated by the fact, that the first pair of legs is the strong pair; being properly hands, they contribute especially to the higher functions, that is, the support of the living animal, through their strength and powers of pre- hension, and not like the following, to locomotion. ‘Thus, as we pass from the centre, the organs are of more and more hum- ble function. : : This centre, as we have observed in another place, is properly between the second antennz and mandibles. ‘The second an- tenn and the rudimentary mouth, are among the first parts that appear in the embryo. If we look at it as a centre of force or of growth, we remark that the radii on opposite sides of this centre, before and behind, are very unequal, the latter being six or eight times as long as the former,—a relation which is the in- verse of the functional importance of the parts pertaining to each. Our idea of the condition of highest centralization is thus drawn from a study of the species. = J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 17 The most perfect state of it is seen in the Maia group, (the tri- angular crabs,) in which the bases of the antennz and eyes are crowded into the narrowest possible compass, and the mouth organs are well compacted within the buccal area, and the legs and whole system have the highest completeness. The form of the body of a Maia is a somewhat flattened ovoid, narrowest in front; and the middle point between the mouth and the second antennz, which we call the potential centre of the animal, is situated near the front, say about half an inch from the front outline (excluding the beak), supposing the ceph- alothorax three inches long. We may call the part anterior to this centre, A; the part posterior, B; and the length of the for- mer, measured on the axis, a; of the latter, b. These parts may be viewed, as regards development, as potentially equal; and yet the anterior, A, is six times shorter and as much nar- rower and lower than the following. It would not, therefore, be far out of the way to say, in mathematical language, that the functional importance of the two parts varies inversely as the cubic contents of the parts. We pass now to the degradations from this, the highest type. These degradations are seen— first, in a widening of the space between the antenne. Second, in a slight enlargement of the outer maxillipeds, so that they do not fit snugly over the buccal area. Third, in an elongation of the antenne. These are all evidences of a slight relaxing of the concentrat- ing element. ‘The jirst, marks the transition of the Maia group to the Parthenopidee, and thence to the Cancride. The second, earries the grade a step lower, to species of the old genus Cancer, also to the swimming crabs and the Corystoids; and the third, marks off the Corystoids as the lowest of the true Brachyura. While there are such marks of degradation exhibited through the growth or elongation of parts, there is also a mark, equally significant, in the obsolescence of the posterior thoracic legs, a peculiarity of many Grapsoids. In the Maioids, the species are well balanced; the type is perfect in its development; the sus- taining of the central functions allows of the full and complete growth of all the other parts. But the diminution of force may not only be attended with a loosening of the cephalic hold on the remoter of the cephalic organs, but also, in a failure in the production of the posterior organs of the body, or those on the outer limits of the system: and this is what happens in many Grapsoids. The swimming form of the legs in Lupa and allied species is a similar mark of inferiority. Besides the above evidences of degradation, there are still others in the Brachyural structure, which act conjointly with SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 3 18 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. the preceding, producing lower grades of species. They are all marks of a relaxation of the centralization. 4 Fourth. An enlargement or widening of the sternum and ab- omen. fifth. The abdomen becoming somewhat relaxed from the venter instead of remaining close-appressed to it. Sixth. The vulvee becoming more remote from one another, being situated in the bases of the third pair of legs, instead of the sternum. : Seventh. The inner antenne losing their fossettes, and being constantly exsert. fighth. The branchiz being more than nine in number on either side. The first of these peculiarities distinguishes many of the Grapsoids, as well as lower species. The second is observed in the Corystoids, and is an additional mark of their inferior grade. The third occurs in Dromia and allied. The fourth, in Latrevllia. The fifth, in Dromia. Dromia and Latreillia have the posterior legs abbreviated, and in Dromia, this evidence of degradation is os stronger, in that the fourth as well as fifth pair is short and orsal. The last three characteristics, above mentioned, mark a tran- sition towards the Macroural type, and the genera of this kind belong with the Anomoura. ‘This transition is seen further in— Ninth. The eyes being without fossettes. Tenth. The second pair of antennz becoming exterior to the eyes. Eleventh. The outer maxillipeds more enlarged and subpe- diform. Twelfth. The abdomen more lax and furnished with a pair of caudal appendages. Thirteenth. The abdomen more elongated, and hardly inflexed. These several changes exhibit a continuation of the process of ~ relaxation in the central forces. ‘There is thereby an enlarge- ment of the antennee, and their more remote position at the an- terior extremity of the animal; and also, an enlargement of the posterior or abdominal parts of the animal, and a development of appendages in the posterior direction. ‘These marks of de- eradation, excepting the thirteenth, are found in the Hippa and Porcellana groups, and the thirteenth in the Paguridea. At the same time that these Macroural characteristics appear, the body becomes elongated. ‘The species all bear a stamp of imperfection in the abbreviated posterior legs, as explained above, as well as in the other points alluded to. The subordination of the nine anterior annuli to cephalic functions, which is so striking in the Maioids, has become less and less complete, and the organs less perfect; moreover, the habits of the animals are more sluggish, J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 19 and they are less fitted for self-preservation. The large Dromia picks up a waste shell, and by means of its hind legs, lifts it over its bedy for protection, and the Pagurus finds shelter in the water-worn univalves of a coast. The degradation pointed out, is hence, not merely a variation in the position and size of certains organs, but an actual deterio- ration in rank and intelligence. Other minor points exhibiting difference of grade, might be mentioned: but they have already been subjects of remark. We state here only one—the character of the fingers of the large hands. In the higher species, these fingers are pointed ; in a grade below, in some groups, they have a spoon-like ex- tremity. This excavate form is often more perfect in young in- dividuals than in adults, which is one evidence that it is in fact proof of inferiority. By this mark we learn that the Chlorodine are of lower grade than the Xanthine; the Paguri, than the Bernhardi; the Mithracide, than the Maiade, ete. Let us now pass to the Macroura. In the typical Macroural species, the antennse, instead of being minute, with the inner retractile, are long exsert organs, and the outer have a large plate as an appendage at base; the eyes are without sockets; the outer maxillipeds are pediform, and do not closely cover the outer mouth organs; the abdomen is often longer than the rest of the body, and has its six regular pairs of appendages. All these points show a still further relaxing of the centralization or cephalization of the species. There is an elongation of the parts anterior to the mouth, and also of those posterior, and this elongation of the two extremities is approximately propor- tional to the relative dimensions of the corresponding parts in the Brachyura. If we were to draw out an ovoid with the rela- tive length and breadth of a Macroural cephalothorax, and place its focus so as to correspond with the position of the posterior margin of the epistome, in a manner like that proposed for the Maia among Brachyura, the ovoid for the Macroura would be very narrow, and the focus or centre proportionally farther from the front than in the Brachyura. In following down the degradation of the Brachyura to the Anomoura, we have found the posterior legs becoming abbre- viated, and the whole structure in its aspect imperfect. But, in the typical Macroura, there is nothing of this seeming imperfec- tion. The legs are all fully formed; the animals are exceed- ingly quick in their motion, instead of being sluggish; and every organ is apparently in its most perfect state for the uses of the system to which it is tributary. We should, therefore, understand, that the process of degradation, alluded to above, is not one actually passed through in the system of creation; for by its progress we should never reach the Macroural structure ; 20 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. nor, in the reverse order, should we from the Macroural reach the Brachyural structure. Inthe remarks above, we speak only . of the comparative actual conditions of the species as regards centralization. The Macroura and Brachyura belong to independent yet cor- related and subordinate types of structure, each perfect in itself, and admitting of wide modifications, and having its own system of degradations. We add a few words on these degradations among the Macroura. We have seen that, in the Brachyura, the powerful prehensile legs are those of the first pair, these acting for the collection of food, and so contributing to the mouth. In the Macroura, there are species of high rank that have the an- terior legs strong-handed, like the Macroura. ‘There are others, in which the second or third pair is the strong-handed pair ; others having all the legs weak appendages, with only rudi- mentary hands or none. ‘The several marks of degradation are as follows :-— first. The outer maxillipeds pediform. Second. The maxillipeds next anterior pediform. Third. Second pair of legs cheliform and stouter than the first. Fourth. The third pair of legs cheliform and stouter than either of the preceding. : Thus as we descend, we find one and even two pairs of mouth appendages beginning to pass from the mouth series to the foot series, and the cephalic portion is thus losing its appendages and high centralized character. Moreover, the power belonging to the first pair of legs in the higher species is transferred to the second pair of legs, as in the Palemons; or, to the third pair, as in the Penzidex; indicating a further decrease of that cen- tralization so remarkable in the Brachyura. Still lower among the species, as in the Sergestidee, all the legs are weak, and the posterior pair may be short or obsolete,—the same deterioration that occurs in the lower Brachyura. As we descend farther, there is an increased obsolescence of organs, and every step is one of marked imperfection as well as degradation. fifth. The branchiz become external and small. Sixth. The branchiz become wholly wanting, or part of the abdominal appendages. Seventh. The last two pairs of thoracic legs become obsolete. Highth. The abdominal appendages become obsolete. Ninth. The eyes and antennz have separate segments, and the abdomen is very long and large. The fifth point of degradation is seen in the Huphauside ; the sixth, in the Myside and other Anomobranchiates; the seventh is found in several genera of the same group; the eighth in cer- tain Myside. The Anomobranchiates are thus degraded Ma- J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 21 croura. There is not merely a relaxing of the centralization; but the forces are so weakened as not to succeed in finishing out the members in the system of structure to which they pertain. The species consequently are not modifications upon the level of the Macroural type, nor upon a distinct level or distinct type; but simply imperfect developments of the Macroural structure below the true level of that type. They bear nearly the same relation to the Macroura, that the Anomoura bear to the Brachy- ura. ‘The ninth step is seen in the Squilloidea, whose relaxation of system and elongation in the cephalic part, as well as abdo- men are remarkable. The continuation of the line of degradation represented in the Anomoura, is not to be found, as we have remarked, among the typical Macroura. But the structure of the Paguri may be traced into the aberrant Macroura, called Thalassenidea; and thence, both in the abdomen, the legs, and the branchize, we ob- serve a transition to the Squilloids, one division of the Anomo- branchiates. If then, we were to trace out the lines of affinity in the species, it would be from the Mysis group to the typical Macroura, and from the Squilla group to the Thalassinidea, as elsewhere explained. From the latter, the lines lead mainly to the Anomoura and higher species. : In our review, thus far, we recognise one only of the primary types of structure among Crustacea. ‘This primary type is char- acterized by having nine normal annuli or segments devoted to the senses and mouth, that is, to the cephalic portion of the body. It includes two, or, we perhaps may say, three secondary — types. The first of these secondary types is the Brachyural; it has the antennze small, the inner pair in fossettes, the abdomen. without appendages. In the other type (or other two, if so con- sidered), the antennze are elongated, and both pairs free, the ab- domen is elongated, and furnished with a series of appendages. This, the second type, is the Macroural; or, if we assume that it embraces two distinct types (a second and third), the two cor- respond to the typical Macroura and the Thalassinidea. Hach secondary type embraces types of more subordinate: character, which it is unnecessary here to dwell upon. There is a tendency in the lowest Macroural species to a trans- fer of the two posterior mouth appendages to the foot series, so as: to leave but seven cephalic annuli; but it is only a modification of the primary type, as the species have every mark of being de- graded or imperfect forms, and are not examples of a new type. In this primary type, the species vary in length from half an inch to twenty inches. ‘T'wo inches may be set down as the av- erage length and breadth for the Brachyura; while three inches is the average length of the Macroura, the average breadth being half an inch or less. | 22 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. The second primary type among Crustacea is as well defined in its limits, and as distinct in its characters as the first. Instead of having nine annuli devoted to the senses and mouth, there are but seven, the mouth, including a pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxille, and one of maxillipeds. The number is permanent and characteristic. There are, consequently, seven pairs of legs in these species, instead of five, the Decapod number; and the species have been appropriately styled the Zetradecapoda. In- stead of exhibiting any appearance of imperfection, or any ob- solescent organs, like those lower Macroura that show a transi- tion to a fourteen-footed structure, the organs are all complete, and the whole structure is perfect in symmetry and unique in character. They have not a Macroural characteristic. The eyes are not pedicellate; there is no carapax, but a body di- vided into as many segments as there are legs (whence our name Choristopoda); the antennze, legs, and the whole internal struc- ture are distinct in type. ‘The branchiz are simple sacs, either thoracic or abdominal. We have, therefore, in the Tetradecapods an expression of that structure of body, and that size, which belongs to a system, in which but seven annuli or segments are concentrated in the ce- phalic portion of the structure. The structure is far inferior to the Decapodan. The size rarely exceeds two inches, though in extreme cases three to four inches; and probably half an inch is the average length. ‘T’he contrast between the first and second of the primary types, is therefore as distinct in the average size of their structures, as in their actual grade or rank. Superior rank among the Tetradecapods may be distinguished by some of the same points as in the Decapods. The short antennee, short compact bodies, and abbreviated abdomen of the Isopods, are proofs of their superiority of grade. The abdomi- nal appendages are simply branchial, and in the higher species are naked or non-ciliated lamelle. ‘The transitions to a lower grade are seen in the elongation of these abdominal lamellee, their becoming ciliated, and the abdomen being also more elon- gated and flexible; then in the abdominal lamelle becoming elongated natatory appendages, and the abdomen taking a length usually not less than that of the thorax, as in the Amphipods, in which the branchiz are appendages to the thoracic legs. And while this elongation goes on posteriorly, there is also anteriorly an enlargement of the antenns, which in the Amphipoda are usually long organs. There are thus two secondary types of structure among the Tetradecapods, as among the Decapods; a transition group between, analogous to the Anomoura, partakes of some of the characters of both types, without being a distinct type itself These are our Anisopoda. ‘The species graduate from the Isopod degree of perfection to the Bopyni, the lowest J. D, Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 23 of the Tetradecapods. There is thus another analogy between this group and the Anomoura. The Trilobita probably belong with this second type, rather than the Entomostracan. Yet they show an abberrant character in two important points. First, the segments of the body are multiplied much beyond the normal number, as in the Phyllopoda among the Entomostraca; and Agassiz has remarked upon this as evidence of that larval analogy which characterizes in many cases the earlier forms of animal life. In the second place, the size of the body far transcends the ordinary Isopodan limit. This might be considered a mark of superiority; but it is more probably the reverse. It is an enlargement ‘beyond the normal and most effective size, due to the same principle of vegetative growth, which accords with the inordinate multiplication of seg- ments in the body. The third primary type (the Entomostracan) includes a much wider variety of structure than either of the preceding, and is less persistent in its characteristics. It is, however, more remote in habit from the Tetradecapods, than from the lowest Decapods, and is properly a distinct group. Unlike the Decapods and Te- tradecapods, there are normally but sex annuli devoted to the senses and mouth in the highest of the species, and but five in others, the mouth including a pair of mandibles, and either one or two pairs of maxille (or maxillipeds). This is an abrupt step below the Tetradecapods. We exclude from these mouth organs the prehensile legs, called maxillipeds by some authors, as they _ are not more entitled to the name than the prehensile legs in Tanais, and many other Tetradecapods. There is an exception to the general principle in a few species. A genus of Cyproids has three pairs of maxille; but this may be viewed as an exam- ple of the variations which the type admits of, rather than as an essential feature of it,—possibly a result of the process of obso- lescence which marks a low grade, as in the Mysidsz, whose abdomen by losing its appendages, approximates in this respect to the Brachyural structure, though, in fact, far enough remote. The species of the Entomostracan type show their inferiority to either of the preceding in the absence of a series of abdominal appendages, and also in having the appendages of the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh normal rings, when present, natatory in form. The range of size is very great,—and this is a mark of their low grade, for in this respect they approach the Radiata, whose limits of size are remarkably wide. Nearly all of the species, and those which, by their activity, show that they possess the typical structure in its highest perfection, are minute, not avera- ging over a line in length, or perhaps more nearly three-fourths of a line. 24 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea, Taking this as the true expression of the mean normal size of the type, the three primary types will vary m this respect as 24 (two inches): 6: 1. The size in this third type, reaches its maximum in the Limuli; _and these are unwieldly species,. whose very habits show that vegetative growth has given them a body beyond the successful control of its weak system, that is, a larger frame than it has power to wield with convenience, or defend, for it is at the mercy even of the waves upon a beach. . This type has its highest representatives among the Cyclopoids, which remind us of the Mysis group of the higher Crustacea. In these, the cephalic part includes six out of the fourteen cepha- lothoracic annuli. In the Daphnioids and the Caligoids, they include only jive. In Limulus, only the first four can properly be counted as of the cephalic series. In many other Entomos- traca, the mouth organs are nearly as perfect legs as in Limulus, and the species although evidently of a low grade, cannot properly be removed from the group. Limulus has its nearest ally in Apus, although this genus has the mouth organs of a Daphnia. The lowest species of the type are the Lernezoids. , A fourth primary type includes the Cirripeds. It is of the same rank as regards cephalization as the Hntomostraca; yet, it has so many peculiarities of structure, that it should be regarded as a distinct type rather than a subordinate division. of the third type. The mean size of the species of this group is much greater than the same among the higher Hntomostraca. But if we regard the young in its active Cypris state, and compare it with the corresponding condition of species of Cyproids, we shall discover that the species have, in fact, an abnormal growth; a growth which takes place at the expense of the powers of motion or action in the individuals. The body, when it commences a se- dentary life, creases in magnitude far beyond the Cypris or Daphnia size; and there is a corresponding loss of power. 'The same force will not move a heavy structure, that is sufficient for the tiny model; and when the model is enlarged without a cor- responding increase in the seat of power, sluggish motion is the necessary consequence. ‘Thus it is with the Medusz. Individ- uals of the minuter species, or the larger species when in the young state, are gifted with active powers of motion; the struc- ture conforms to the forces within: but as the species enlarge, they become slow in movement, or lose almost every attribute of life. The same principle is illustrated again in the Bopyri. The male is a small active animal, related to Jeera and T’anais. The female, of sedentary habits, becomes grossly enlarged and corpulent, so as to exceed by twenty-fold lineally the length of the male, and nearly ten thousand times its bulk. It is manifest, that the nervous system, or motive power of the female, is abso- J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 25 lutely no greater than that of the male; and consequently, the capabilities of locomotion will be ten thousand times less, or the female will move but a ten-thousandth of an inch at the most, while the male is moving one inch, a fact with regard to them, as any one is aware of who has seen the incapability of the female to make any progress by locomotion. ‘T'his then, is an example beyond dispute, of a system overgrown through the vegetative process, so as to be too much for the motive energies within. The Lernzeoids afford a similar illustration of this principle. For the same reason, therefore, as in the Bopyri, the Medusz, the Lernzoids, and the Limuli, we cannot compare the actual mean size of the adult Cirripeds, with those of the other primary types. We should rather infer the mean normal size for such a comparison, from the size of the young before it becomes seden- tary, or from that of free males, if such exist. Such males are announced by Darwin, as actually occurring in some species. Moreover, they are very minute, varying from a line to half a line or less in length. This, therefore, is some reason for taking as the mean normal size, the same as given for the Hntomostraca, A fifth primary type includes the Roratoria. In these animal- cular species, the mouth includes a pair of mandibles and often a rudimentary pair of maxille; and consequently, the cephalic portion may contain the same number of annuli as in the Daphnia group, with which group many of them have near relations. They have usually an articulated abdomen, furcate at extremity, like the Cyclopoids. The grand point of inferiority to the Ento- mostraca, evincing the more infinitesimal character of the system of life within, is the absence of all thoracic appendages or legs, The organs of locomotion are simply ciliz arranged about the head; and it is quite probable that two sets (or more) of them correspond to the second pair of antennez, as these are organs of prehension and motion in many Hntomostraca. In Callidina, there are two sets, some distance from the extremity of the head, which may have this relation; and the two sets in the true Roti- fers may also be of this character. In others, the corresponding paris are actually somewhat elongated. The species vary in size from a line toa sixtieth of a line. Probably one-sexth of a line is the average size. The actual relation of the Rotatoria to the Entomostraca (which view the author sustained in his Report on Zoophytes (1845) ), can hardly be doubted by those who have the requisite knowledge of the lower Crustacea for comparison. The struc- ture of the body, the jointing and form of the abdomen, when it exists, the mandibles, and alimentary system, the eyes when present,—all are Crustacean; and a slight transformation of some Hntomostraca—an obliteration of the legs and substitution of locomotive ciliee—would almost turn them into Rotatoria. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 4 26 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. In the classification which has been developed, we have made out five primary types of structure among Crustacea. A grand distinction has been shown to consist in the different degrees of cephalization of the normal Crustacean structure. ‘The consecra- tion of nzne annuli, out of the fourteen cephalothoracic, to the senses and mouth, distinguishes the highest type; of seven, the second type; of sex or five, the third and fourth; of jive or four, the fifth. In connexion with other distinctions in these types, we find that they correspond to structures of different size, the size being directly related to the grade. These particulars may be tabulated as follows :— Typical number Mean normal length, in of cephalic an- twelfths of inches or null. lines. Type I. Popoputuatmia ) Subtype I. Brachyura, 9 24 (and breadth, 24). or Drecapopa, II. Macroura, 36 (and breadth, 6). > peda 6 Type II. TerrapEcapopA, -~— - 7 Type III. Enromosrraca, - - - - 6-5 Type IV. Crrrieepia, - E 2 “ : 6-5 Type V. Roratoria, - - : 2 4 5 The first type is alone in having true thoracic branchiz, and pedicellate eyes. The second type has branchial sac-like appendages, either ab- dominal or thoracic, and sessile eyes. The third type has generally no branchie, the surface of some part or all of the body serving for aeration. A few species, however, are furnished with special organs for this function. This is, however, no mark of superiority in such species, for they occur even in the Limuli, among the lowest of the Ento- mostraca. ‘The necessity of them in this case arises from the abnormal size of the species, both the mark and occasion of its inferiority ; for the system is thus too large for the mode of sur- face aeration, found among ordinary Entomostraca; moreover, the shell; which so large an animal possesses and requires for the attachment of its muscles and its movements, is thick and firm, and this is inconsistent with aeration by the exterior surface of the body. The same remarks apply to the liver glands, which are very small or wanting in the small species. The third and fourth types show their inferiority to the second, by the absence of a series of abdominal appendages; and the fifth a lower state still, in the absence of both thoracic and ab- dominal legs. The more degraded Macroura (certain Mysideze) show a transition in this obsolescence of abdominal organs to the third type. Some of the conclusions from these facts are the following. I, Each type corresponds to a certain system of force more or less centralized in the organism, and is an expression of that force,—the higher degree being such as is fitted for the higher J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 27 structures developed, the lower such as is fitted for structures of inferior grade and size. In other words, the life-system is of different orders for the different types, and the structures formed exhibit the extent of their spheres of action, being such as are adapted to use the force most effectively, in accordance with the end of the species. II. In a given type, as the first, for example, the same system may be of different dimensions, adapted to structures of different sizes, But the size in either direction for structures of efficient action is limited. ‘'T'o pass these limits, a life-system of another order is required. The Macroura, as they diminish in size, finally pass this limit, and the organisms (Mysidz, for example) are no longer perfect in their members; an obsolescence of some parts begins to take place, and species of this small size are actually complete only when provided with the structure of a Tetradecapod. The extreme size of structure admitting of the highest efficient activity is generally three to six times lineally the average or mean typical size. Of these gigantic species, three or four times longer than the mean type, there areexamples among the _ Brachyura and Macroura, which have all the highest attributes of the species. ‘There are also Amphipoda and Isopoda three inches in length, with full vigorous powers. Among Entomos- traca, the Calanidz, apparently the highest group, include spe- cies that are three lines long, or three times the length of the mean. type. III. But the limit of. efficient activity may be passed; and . when so it is attended with a loss of active powers. The struc- ture, as in the female Bopyrus and Lernzoids, and the Cirripeds, outgrows vegetatively the proper sphere of action of the system of force within. This result is especially found in sedentary species, as we have exemplified in our remarks on the Cirripeds. IV. Size is, therefore, an important element in the system of animal structures. As size diminishes, in all departments of animal life, the structure changes. To the human structure there is a limit; to the quadrupeds also, beyond which the struc- ture is an impossibility; and the same seems to be the case among Crustacea. The Decapod, as the size diminishes, reaches the lowest limit; and then, to continue the range of size in species, another structure, the Tetradecapodan, is instituted; and as this last has also its limit, the Entomostracan is intro- duced to continue the gradation; and, as these end, the Rota- toria begin. ‘Thus Crustacea are made to embrace species, from a length of nearly two feet (or two hundred and fifty lines) to that of a one-hundred-and-fiftieth of a line. These several types of structure among Crustacea do not graduate, as regards size, directly from one to another, but they constitute overlapping lines, as has been sufficiently shown. 28 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. VY. In the opposite extreme of organic beings, the vegetable kingdom, the same principle is illustrated. Plants may be so minute as to have free motion and activity, asin animals. ‘The spores of certain Algze are known to have powers of locomotion, and some so-called Infusoria, are now admitted to belong to the vegetable kingdom. These are examples of locomotive plants. Now, ordinary plants, like Cirripeds, are examples of sedentary species, that have outgrown the limits of activity. The life-sys- tem of a plant, is in fact sufficient in power to give locomotion only to the minute plant-individuals alluded to; and infusorial species of plants retain it, as long as they live. But when, as in the Algee, vegetative growth proceeds in the enlargement of the minute infusorial spore, it immediately outgrows its activity, and becomes a sedentary plant. In most other plants, the seed have never the minute size which admits of motion. The mean size of the Entomostracan type was stated to be one line; of the Rotatorial type, one-sixth of a line; and we may add, that the mean size of the Plant type—understanding by this, as in other cases, the mean size admitting of the highest activity— if deduced from the size of plant-infusoria, would be about one- sixtieth of a line. We observe, that the smallest size of the perfect Macroura (first type) is very nearly the mean size as to length of the ani- mals of the second type. So also, the smallest size of the perfect animal of the second type (Tetradecapoda) is very nearly the mean size of the most perfect animals of the third type; and the smallest size of the perfect animal of the third type is nearly the largest size in the fifth type. In order to compare allied animals of different sizes, it should be noted, that while there is some foundation for the conclusion, that under certain limitations, size is a mark of grade, rapidity of movement or action should also be considered; and the more proper comparison would be between multiples of size and activity. ‘This deduction, is, however, true only in the most gen- eral sense, and rather between species of allied groups than those of different types. We may occasionally find something like an exemplification of the law among bipeds, ludicrous though the idea may be. VI. We observe with regard to the passage in Crustacea to inferior grades under a given type, that there are two methods by which it takes place. : 1. A diminution of centralization, leading to an enlargement of _ the circumference or sphere of growth at the expense of con- centration, as in the elongation of the antennz and a transfer of the maxilipeds to the foot series, the elongation of the abdomen and abdominal appendages, etc. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Crustacea. 29 2. A diminution of force as compared with the size of the structure, leading to an abbreviation or obsolescence of some circumferential organs, as the posterior thoracic legs or anterior antenne, or the abdominal appendages (where such appendages exist in the secondary type embracing the species). ‘These cir- cumstances, moreover, are independent of a degradation of in- telligence, by an extension of the sphere of growth beyond the proper limits of the sphere of activity. VII. A classification by grades, analogous to that deduced for Crustacea, may no doubt be made out for other classes of animals. But the particular facts in the class under consideration, are not to be forced upon other classes. Thus, while inferiority among Crustacea is connected with a diminished number of annuli ce- phalically absorbed (for the senses and mouth), it by no means follows, that the Insecta, which agree in the number of cephalic annuli with the lower Crustacea, are allied to them in rank, or inferior to the higher species. On the contrary, as the Insecta pertain to a distinct division, being aerial instead of aqueous animals, they can be studied and judged of, only on principles deduced from comparison among insects themselves. They are not subject to Crustacean laws, although they must exemplify beyond doubt, the fundamental idea at the basis of those laws. The views which have been explained, lead us to a modifica- tion, in some points, of the classification of Crustacea. The question, whether the eyes are pedicellate or not, upon which the names Podophthalmia and Hdriophthalmia are based, proves to be one of secondary importance. And although still available in distinguishing almost infallibly the species of the first type, it is far from rendering it necessary or natural to embrace to- gether under a common division the species that have sessile eyes (so-called Edriophthalmia), as done by most writers on this subject. _ The term Decapoda, in view of these principles, has a higher signification than has been suspected since by expressing the number of feet, it implies the number of cephalic annuli charac- terizing the species. It would not be employing it inconven- iently, therefore, if it were extended to embrace all the Podoph- thalmia, or all species of the first type, including the Mysis and Squilla groups. For a like reason, the term Tetradecapoda has a high signifi- cance, as applied to the species of the second type. The position of the Trilobita still remains in doubt. The Cirripedia and Entomostraca, third and fourth types, stand properly on nearly the same level. 30 J. Henry on testing Building Materials. ArT. V.—On the Mode of testing Building Materials, and an ac- count of the Marble used in the Hatension of the United States Capitol ; by Professor JosepH HENRY, Secretary of the Smith- ‘sonian Institution.* A. COMMISSION was appointed by the President of the United States, in November, 1851, to examine the marbles which were offered for the extension of the United States Capitol, which consisted of General T'otten, A. J. Downing, the Commissioner of Patents, the architect, and myself. Another commission was subsequently appointed, in the early part of the year 1854, to repeat and extend some of the experiments,—the members of which were General Totten, Professor Bache, and myself. A. part of the results of the first commission were given in a report to the Secretary of the Interior, and a detailed account of the whole of the investigations of these committees will ulti- mately be given in full in a report to Congress, and I propose here merely to present some of the facts of general interest, or which may be of importance to those engaged in similar re- searches. Although the art of building has been practised from the earli- est times, and constant demands have been made, in every age, for the means of determining the best materials, yet the process of ascertaining the strength and durability of stone appears to have received but little definite scientific attention, and the com- mission, who have never before made this subject a special object of study, have been surprised with unforeseen difficulties at every step of their progress, and have come to the conclusion that the processes usually employed for solving these questions are still in a very unsatisfactory state. It should be recollected, that the stone in the building is to be exposed for centuries, and that the conclusions desired are to be drawn from results produced in the course of a few weeks. Besides this, in the present state of science, we do not know all the actions to which the materials are subjected im nature, nor can we fully estimate the amount of those which are known. The solvent power of water, which even attacks glass, must in time produce an appreciable effect on the most solid material, particularly where it contains, as the water of the atmosphere always does, carbonic acid in solution. The attrition of siliceous dusts, when blown against a building, or washed down its sides by rain, is evidently operative in wearing away the surface, though the evanescent portion removed at each time may not be indicated by the nicest balance. An examination of the basin * From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Providence, R. I, August, 1855. New York: 1856. J. Henry on testing Building Materials. 31 which formerly received the water from the fountain at the western entrance of the Capitol, now deposited in the Patent Office, will convince any one of the great amount of action pro- duced principally by water charged with carbonic acid. Again, every flash of lightning not only generates nitric acid,—which, in solution in the rain, acts on the marble,—but also by its in- ductive effects at a distance produces chemical changes along the moist wall, which are at the present time beyond our means of estimating. Also the constant variations of temperature from day to day, and even from hour to hour, give rise to mole- cular motions which must affect the durability of the material of a building. Recent observations on the pendulum have shown that the Bunker Hill Monument is scarcely for a moment | in a state of rest, but is constantly warping and bending under the | influence of the varying temperature of its different sides. Moreover, as soon as the polished surface of a building is made rough from any of the causes aforementioned, the seeds of mi- nute lichens and mosses, which are constantly floating in the at- mosphere, make it a place of repose, and by the growth and decay of the microscopic plants which spring from these, discol- oration is produced, and disintegration is assisted. But perhaps the greatest source of the wearing away in a cli- mate like ours, is that of the alternations of freezing and thawing which take place during the winter season; and though this effect must be comparatively powerful, yet, in good marble, it requires the accumulated effect of a number of years in order definitely to estimate its amount. From all these causes, the commission are convinced that the only entirely reliable means of ascertaining the comparative capability of marble to resist the weather, is to study the actual effects of the atmosphere upon it, as exhibited in buildings which for years have been exposed to these influences. Unfortunately, however, in this country, but few opportunities for applying this test are to be found. It is true some analogous information may be derived from the exam- ination of the exposed surfaces of marble in their out-crops at the quarry ; but in this case the length of time they have been exposed, and the changes of actions to which they may have been subjected, during, perhaps, long geological periods, are un- known; and since different quarries may not have been exposed to the same action, they do not always afford definite data for reliable comparative estimates of durability, except where differ- ent specimens occur in the same quarry. As we have said before, the art of testing the quality of stone for building purposes is at present in a very imperfect state; the object is to imitate the operations of nature, and at the same time to hasten the effect by increasing the energy of the action, and, after all, the result may be deemed but as approximative, or, to a considerable degree, merely probable. ! 32 J. Henry on testing Building Materials, About twenty years ago an ingenious process was devised by M. Brard, which consists in saturating the stone to be tested with a solution of the sulphate of soda. In drying, this salt crystal- lizes and expands, thus producing an exfoliation of surface which is supposed to imitate the effect of frost. Though this process has been much relied on, and generally employed, recent investi- gations made by Dr. Owen lead us to doubt its perfect analogy with that of the operations of nature. He found that the results produced by the actual exposure to freezing and thawing in the air, during a portion of winter, in the case of the more porous stones, produced very different results from those obtained by the drying of the salt. It appears from his experiments, that the action of the latter is chemical as well as mechanical. The commission, in consideration of this, have attempted to produce results on the stone by freezing and thawing by means of artificial cold and heat. This process is, however, laborious; each specimen must be enclosed in a separate box fitted with a cover, and the amount of exfoliation produced is so slight, that in good marble the operation requires to be repeated many times before reliable comparative results can be obtained. In prose- cuting this part of the inquiries, unforeseen difficulties have oc- curred in ascertaining precisely the amount of the disintegration, and it has been found that the results are liable to be vitiated by circumstances which were not in view at the commencement of the inquiries. It would seem at first sight, and the commission when they undertook the investigation were of the same opinion, that but little difficulty would be found in ascertaining the strength of the various specimens of marbles. In this, however, they were inerror. The first difficulty which occurred was to procure the proper instrument for the purpose. On examining the account of that used by Rennie, and described in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, the commission found that its construe- tion involved too much friction to allow of definite comparative results. Friction itself has to be overcome, as well as the resist- ance to compression, and since it increases in proportion to the pressure, the stronger stones would appear relatively to with- stand too great a compressing force. The commission first examined an instrument—a hydraulic press—which had previously been used for experiments of this kind, but found that it was liable to the same objection as that of the machine of Rennie. They were, however, extremely for- tunate subsequently in obtaining, through the politeness of Com- modore Ballard, commandant of the Navy Yard, the use of an admirable imstrument devised by Major Wade, late of the Uni- ted States Army, and constructed under his direction, for the purpose of testing the strength of gun metals. ‘This instrument J. Henry on testing Building Materials. 33 consists of a compound lever, the several fulcra of which are knife-edges, opposed to hardened steel surfaces. The commis- sion verified the delicacy and accuracy of the indications of this instrument by actual weighing, and found, in accordance with the description of Major Wade, the equilibrium was produced by one pound in opposition to two hundred. In the use of this instrument the commission were much indebted to the experience and scientific knowledge of Lietenant Dahlgreen, of the Navy Yard, and to the liberality with which all the appliances of that important public establishment were put at their disposal. Specimens of the different samples of marble were prepared in the form of cubes of one inch and a half in dimension, and consequently exhibiting a base of two and a quarter square inches. These were dressed by ordinary workmen with the use of a square, and the opposite sides made as. nearly parallel as possible by grinding by hand on a flat surface. They were then placed between two thick steel plates, and in order to insure an equality of pressure, independent of any want of perfect paral- lelism and flatness on the two opposite surfaces, a thin plate of lead was interposed above and below between the stone and the plates of steel. ‘This was in accordance with a plan adopted by Rennie, and that which appears to have been used by most, if not all, of the subsequent experimenters in researches of this kind. Some doubt, however, was expressed as to the ac- tion of interposed lead, which induced a series of experiments to settle this question, when the remarkable fact was discovered, that the yielding and approximately equable pressure of the lead — caused the stone to give way at about half the pressure it would sustain without such an interposition. For example, one of the ‘cubes, serine’ similar to another which withstood a pressure of upwards of 60,000 pounds when placed in immediate contact with the steel plates, gave way at about 80,000 with lead inter- posed. This remarkable fact was verified in a series of experi- ments, embracing samples of nearly all the marbles under trial, and in no case did a single exception occur to vary the result. The explanation of this remarkable phenomenon, now that it is known, is not difficult. The stone tends to give way by bulg- ing out in the centre of each of its four perpendicular faces, and to form two pyramidal figures, with their apices opposed, to each other at the centre of the cube, and their bases against the steel plates. In the case where rigid equable pressure 1s employed, as in that of the thick steel plate, all parts must give way together. But in that of a yielding equable pressure, as in the case of inter- posed lead, the stone first gives way along the lines of least re- sistance, and the remaining pressure must be sustained by the central portions around the vertical axis of the cube. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856, 5 34 J. Henry on testing Building Materials. After this important fact was clearly determined, lead and alt other interposed substances were discarded, and a method devised by which the upper and lower surfaces of the eube could be ground into perfect parallelism. This consists in the use of a rectangular iron frame, into which a row of six of the specimens, could be fastened by a screw at the end. The upper and lower surfaces of this iron frame were wrought into perfect parallelism by the operation of a planing machine. The stones being fas- tened into this, with a small portion of the upper and lower parts projecting, the whole were ground down to a flat surface, until the iron and the face of the cubes were thus brought into a continuous plane. The frame was then turned over, and the op- posite surfaces ground in like manner. Care was of course taken that the surfaces thus reduced to perfect parallelism, in order to receive the action of the machine, were parallel to the natural beds of the stone. All the specimens tested were subjected to this process, and in _ their exposure to pressure were found to give concordant results. The crushing force exhibited in the subjoined table is much greater than that heretofore given for the same material. The commission have also determined the specific gravities of the different samples submitted to their examination, and also the quantity of water which each absorbs. They consider these determinations, and particularly that of the resistance to crushing, tests of much importance, as indica- ting the cohesive force of the particles of the stone, and its ca- pacity to resist most of the influences before mentioned. The amount of water absorbed may be regarded as a measure of the antagonistic force to cohesion, which tends, in the expan- sion of freezing, to disintegrate the surface. In considering, however, the indication of this test, care must be taken to make the comparison between marbles of nearly the same texture, be- cause a coarsely crystallized stone may apparently absord a small quantity of water, while in reality the cement which unites the crystals of the same stone may absorb a much larger quantity. That this may be so was clearly established in the experiments with the coarsely crystallized marbles examined by the commis- sion. When these were submitted toa liquid which slightly tinged the stone, the coloration was more intense around the margin of each crystal, indicating a greater amount of absorp- tion in these portions of the surface. The marble which was chosen for the Capitol is a dolomite, or is composed of carbonate of lime and magnesia in nearly atomic proportions. It was analyzed by Dr. Torrey of New York, and Dr. Genth of Philadelphia. According to the analy- sis of the former, it consists, in hundredth parts, of J. Henry on testing Building Materials. 35 Carbonate of lime, . . diac? HA622 Carbonate of magnesia, . : : ‘ . 48°932 Carbonate of protoxyd of iron, : 3860 Carbonate of protoxyd of nianganese, . . (a trace.) Mica, , ; ‘ . 4 : : ‘472 Water and loss, . : j ; : "610 The marble is obtained from a quarry in the southeasterly pert of the town of Lee, in the State of Massachusetts, and be- ongs to the great deposit of primitive limestone which abounds in that part of the district. Itis generally white, with occasional blue veins. The structure is fine-grained. Under the micro- scope it exhibits fine crystals of colorless mica, and occasionally also small particles of bisulphuret of. iron. Its specific gravity is 2°8620; its weight 178°87 lbs. per cubic foot. It absorbs *103 parts of an ounce per cubic inch, and its porosity is great in proportion to its power of resistance to pressure. It sustains 23,917 lbs. to the square inch. It not only absorbs water by capillary attraction, but, in common with other marbles, suffers the diffusion of gases to take place through its substance. Dr. Torrey found that hydrogen and other gases, separated from each other by slices of the mineral, diffuse themselves with consider- able rapidity through the partition. This marble, soon after the workmen commenced placing it in the walls, exhibited a discoloration of a brownish hue, no trace of which appeared so long as the blocks remained exposed to the air in the stone-cutter’s yard. A variety of suggestions and. experiments were made in regard to the cause of this remarka- ble phenomenon, and it was finally concluded that it was due to the previous absorption by the marble of water holding in solu- tion a small portion of organic matter, together with the absorp- tion of another portion of water from the mortar. To illustrate the process, let us suppose a fine capillary tube, the lower end of it immersed in water, and of which the internal diameter is sufficiently small to allow the liquid to rise to the top, and be exposed to the atmosphere; evaporation will take place at the upper surface of the column, a new portion of water will be drawn in to supply the loss; and if this process be con- tinued, any material which may be dissolved in the water, or mechanically mixed with it, will be found deposited at the upper orifice of the tube, or at the point of evaporation. If, however, the lower portion of the tube be not furnished with a supply of water, the evaporation at the top will not take place, and the deposition of foreign matter will not be exhibited, even though the tube itself may be filled with water impregna- ted with impurities. The pores of the stones so long as the blocks remain in the yard are in the condition of the tube not 36 J. Henry on testing Building Materials. supplied at its lower end with water, and consequently no cur- rent takes place through them, and the amount of evaporation is comparatively small; but when the same blocks are placed in the wall of the building, the absorbed water from the mortar at the interior surface gives us the supply of the liquid necessary to carry the coloring material to the exterior surface, and deposit it at the outer orifices of the pores. The cause of the phenomenon being known, a remedy was readily suggested, which consisted in covering the surface of the stone to be imbedded in mortar with a coating of asphaltum. This remedy has apparently proved successful. The discolora- tion is gradually disappearing, and in time will probably be en- tirely imperceptible. This marble, with many other specimens, was submitted to the freezing process fifty times in succession. It generally re- mained in the freezing mixture for twenty-four hours, but some- times was frozen twice ii the same day. The quantity of mate- rial lost was ‘00315 parts of an ounce. On these data Captain Meigs has founded an interesting calculation, which consists in determining the depth to which the exfoliation extended below the surface as the effect of its having been frozen fifty times. He found this to be very nearly the ten-thousandth part of an inch. Now, if we allow the alternations of freezing and thaw- ing in a year on an average to be fifty times each, which in this latitude, would be a liberal one, it would require ten thousand years for the surface of the marble to be exfoliated to the depth of one inch. This fact may be interesting to the geologist as well as the builder. Quite a number of different varieties of marble were experi- mented upon. A full statement of the result of each will be given in the reports of the committees. At the meeting of the Association at Cleveland, I made a com- munication on the subject of cohesion. ‘The paper, however, was presented at the last hour; the facts were not fully stated, and have never been published. I will, therefore, occupy your time in briefly presenting some of the facts I then intended to com- municate, and which I have since verified by further experiments and observations. In a series of experiments made some ten years ago, I showed that the attraction for each other of the particles of a substance in a liquid form was as great as that of the same substance in a solid form. Consequently, the distinction between liquidity and solidity does not consist in a difference in the attractive power occasioned directly by the repulsion of heat; but it depends upon the perfect mobility of the atoms, or a lateral cohesion. We may explain this by assuming an incipient crystallization of atoms into molecules, and consider the first effect of heat as that J. Henry on testing Building Materials. 37 of breaking down these crystals, and permitting each atom to move freely around every other. When this crystalline arrange- ment is perfect, and no lateral motion is allowed in the atoms, the body may be denominated perfectly rigid. We have ap- proximately an example of this in cast-steel, in which no slip- ping takes place of the parts on each other, or no material elon- cation of the mass; and when a rupture is produced by a tensile force, a rod of this material is broken with a transverse fracture of the same size as that of the original section of the bar. In this case every atom is separated at once from the other, and the breaking weight may be considered as a measure of the attrac- tion of cohesion of the atoms of the metal. The effect, however, is quite different when we attempt to pull apart arod of lead. The atoms or molecules slip upon each other. ‘The rod is increased in length, and diminished in thick- ness, until a separation is produced. Instead of lead, we may use still softer materials, such as wax, putty, &c., until at length we arrive at asubstance ina liquid form. This will stand at the extremity of the scale, and between extreme rigidity on the one hand, and extreme liquidity on the other, we may find a series of substances gradually shading from one extremity to the other. According to the views I have presented, the difference in the , tenacity in steel and lead does not consist in the attractive cohe- sion of the atoms, but in the capability of slipping upon each other. From this view, it follows that the form of the material ought'to have some effect upon its tenacity, and also that the strength of the article should depend in some degree upon the process to which it had been subjected. For example, I have found that softer substances, in which the outer atoms have freedom of motion, while the inner ones by the pressure of those exterior are more confined, break un- equally; the inner fibres, if I may so call the rows of atoms, give way first, and entirely separate, while the exterior fibres show but little indications of a change of this kind. If a cylindrical rod of lead three quarters of an inch in diam- eter be turned down on a lathe in one part to about half an inch, and then be gradually broken by a force exerted in the direction of its length, it will exhibit a cylindrical hollow along its axis of half an inch in length, and at least a tenth of an inch in di- ameter. With substances of greater rigidity this effect is less apparent, but it exists even in iron, and the interior fibres of a rod of this metal may be entirely separated, while the outer sur- face presents no appearance of change. From this it would appear that metals should never be elon- gated by mere stretching, but in all cases by the process of wire- drawing, or rolling. A wire or bar must always be weakened 38 J. D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azoie System. by a force which permanently increases its length without at the same time compressing it. Another effect of the lateral motion of the atoms of a soft heavy body, when acted upon by a percussive force with a ham- mer of small dimensions in comparison with the mass of metal, —for example, if a large shaft of iron be hammered with an or- dinary sledge,—is a tendency to expand the surface so as to make it separate from the middle portions. The interior of the mass by its own inertia becomes as it were an anvil, between which and the hammer the exterior portions are stretched longi- tudinally and transversely. I here exhibit to the Association a piece of iron originally from a square bar four feet long, which has been so hammered as to produce a perforation of the whole length entirely through the axis. The bar could be seen through, as if it were the tube of a telescope. 3 This fact appears to me to be of great importance in a practi- cal point of view, and may be connected with many of the la- mentable accidents which have occurred in the breaking of the axles of locomotive engines. ‘These, in all cases, ought to be formed by rolling, and not with the hammer. The whole subject of the molecular constitution of matter offers a rich field for investigation, and isolated facts, which are familiar to almost every one when attentively studied, will be made to yield results alike interesting to abstract science and practical art. ART. VI.—On the Occurrence of the Ores of Iron in the Azoic System; by J. D. WHITNEY.* THE object of the present communication is to call attention to the geological position and mode of occurrence of one of the most interesting and important classes of the ores of iron, namely, those which are associated with rocks of the Azoic System. The term Azoic, first employed by Murchison and De Verneuil in their description of the geology of the Scandinavian Peninsula, has been adopted by Mr. Foster and myself in our Reports on the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District, and has been shown by us to be applied with propriety to a series of rocks which covers an immense space in the Northwest. We have called attention to the fact, that this system of rocks, wherever it has been demonstrated to exist, has been found characterized by the presence of deposits of ores of. iron, developed on a scale of magnitude beyond anything which occurs in any of the succeed- ing geological groups or systems of rocks. * Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Ninth Meeting, held at Providence, R. 1, August, 1855, p. 209. " J. D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azoic System. 39 In illustration of these views, we have briefly described some of the great ferriferous districts of the world, and particularly those of Lake Superior, Scandinavia, Missouri, and Northern New York, all of which exhibit a most marked analogy with each other, both in regard to the mode of occurrence and the geological position of the ores. The two last-named regions, however, not having been thoroughly examined by us in person, we were obliged to content ourselves with information obtained from others, in making a comparison of their most striking features. Strongly impressed with the interest attaching to this subject, I availed myself of the first opportunity, after the publication of our Report, to visit the iron regions of Missouri and Northern New York, from the last-named of which I have just returned, after a careful examination of the most important localities where ore is now mined in that district. While itis intended to take another opportunity for giving a minute and detailed account of this region, I may be permitted to recapitulate here the prin- cipal pomts maintained by Mr. Foster and myself, to the gen- eral correctness of which my more recent explorations have furnished me with additional evidence. We maintain therefore,— 1. That deposits of the ores of iron exist in various parts of the world, which in extent and magnitude are so extraordinary as to form aclass by themselves. ‘The iron regions mentioned above offer the most striking examples of the deposits now re- ferred to. : 2. That the ores thus occurring have the same general charac- ter, both mineralogically and in their mode of occurrence, or their relations of position to the adjacent rocks. _ 3. That these deposits all belong to one geological position, and are characteristic of it. The extent of the workable deposits of the ores of the useful metals is usually quite limited. Most of the veins which are wrought in mines throughout the world are but a few feet in width, often not more than a few inches. This is true of the ores occurring in veins. In sedimentary metalliferous deposits, such as those of the ores of iron in the carboniferous, the horizontal extent is often very considerable; but the vertical range is so limited, that the most extensive basins may be in time exhausted, when worked on so extensive a scale as is the case in some of the celebrated iron districts of Great Britain. The deposits of iron in the azoic, however, are many of them developed on a scale of such magnitude, that the term ‘ mountain masses” may be applied to them without exaggeration, while, from the very nature of their occurrence, they must extend indefinitely downwards, and cannot be exhausted. Thus the great iron mountain of 40 J.D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azote System. Gellivara, in Sweden, has a length of three or four miles, and a width of not less than a mile and a half. Of course such a mass of ore, without limit in depth, might be worked on the most en- larged scale for any length of time without fear of exhaustion. The same may be said of some of the iron knobs and ridges of Lake Superior and of Missouri. They form veritable mountains of ore, and ages must elapse before their dimensions will have been perceptibly diminished. This is not necessarily the case with all the localities of ore of these districts. Indeed, in Northern New York and in Scandinavia, although there are accumulations of iron which may be measured by hundreds of feet, or even by miles, yet those which are best known and most worked are of much more reasonable dimensions. The character of the ores thus occurring is mineralogically peculiar. They consist uniformly of the oxyds, either the mag- netic or the specular. Hydrous ores, carbonates and the like, are altogether wanting, unless it be upon the borders of the ore de- posits, where a secondary metamorphic action between the fer- riferous mass and the adjacent rocks may have taken place. The oxyds found in this geological position are in general remarkably free from all injurious substances, such as sulphur, arsenic, lead, or zinc, and usually the approach to chemical purity in the ores is in proportion to the extent of the mass, the largest deposits being the purest. The principal foreign ingredient mixed with these ores is silica, which is always present, although frequently in minute quantity. Indeed, the analyses of the Lake Superior and Missouri ores show, in some instances, a surprisingly near approach to a state of absolute purity. It would not be difficult in some localities to procure large quantities of an ore not con- taining more than two or three tenths of one per cent of foreign matter, and that exclusively silica. ‘The purity of the ores may be inferred from the high character and value of the iron manu- factured from them when they have been, skilfully worked, as, for instance, in Sweden. Some samples of iron manufactured from Lake Superior ore have, when tested, exhibited a degree of tenacity unequaled by that from any other part of the world. The ores of Lake Superior and Missouri are mostly peroxyds; those of Northern New York almost exclusively magnetic; while in Scandinavia the magnetic and specular ores are both of frequent occurrence. Those of New York, are often coarse- grained and highly crystalline, while the peroxyds of Lake Superior and Missouri are rarely distinctly crystallized, but are very compact. The mode of occurrence of these ores in the regions above mentioned is so peculiar, that, from this point of view alone, it is apparent that these deposits should be classed together as distinct from those in the later geological formations. ' In all the charac- aj ee 2 _- J.D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azoic System. 41 teristics of true veins, the great masses of ore now under consid- eration are wholly wanting. Some of the least important of them approach much nearer to segregated veins, and might with pro- priety be classed with them, were they not developed on so large a scale as to render it difficult to conceive of segregation as a sufficient cause for their production. _ In the case of the most prominent masses of ore of these regions there is but one hypothesis which will explain their vast extent and peculiar character. They are simply parts of the rocky crust of the earth, and, like other igneous rocks, have been poured forth from the interior in the molten or plastic state. No other origin can be assigned to the dome-shaped and conical masses of Lake Superior and Missouri, or to the elongated ridges of the first-named region. The Iron Mountain of Missouri forms a flattened dome-shaped elevation, whose base covers a surface of a little less than a square mile, and which rises to a height of 200 feet above the general level of the adjacent country. The surface of the mountain, where bare of soil, is found to be cov- ered with loose blocks of peroxyd of iron, without any ad- mixture of rocky pebbles or fragments, which increase in size in ascending to the summit, where large blocks of ore many tons in weight lie scattered about, and piled upon each other. Ij is a most singular fact, that the ore is nowhere seen in place about the mountain, although the whole mass evidently consists of nothing else. Near its base, an excavation sev- enteen feet deep has been made, which exhibits nothing but small, somewhat rounded fragments of ore closely compacted — together, without any other substance present except a little red, ferruginous clay, which seems to have been formed by the friction of the masses against each other. This feature in the Iron Mountain is one of peculiar interest, and one which it seems difficult to explain. Evidences of drift action in this re- gion are exceedingly faint. The ore itself is one which seems httle likely to undergo decomposition from any exposure to atmospheric changes. The blocks upon the summit, although somewhat moss-grown, have their angles and edges but little rounded. As a key to the origin of the ore, we find in close proximity on the north a long elevation of a reddish porphyry of unmistakably eruptive character, connected with the Iron Mountain by a narrow ridge of a rock composed of iron ore and feldspathic rock, showing that the porphyritic ridge and the ore- mass must have originated at one and the same time, and in the same way. The eruptive origin of the great Lake Superior ore-masses seems also well sustained by the phenomena which they exhibit. They alternate with trappean ridges whose eruptive origin cannot be doubted, and which, themselves, contain so much magnetic SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 6 © ~ 42 J.D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azotc System. oxyd disseminated through their mass, as one of their essential ingredients, that they might almost be called ores. ‘These erup- tive masses include the largest and purest deposits of ore which are known in the Lake Superior or the Missouri iron regions; but there are other localities in both these districts where the mode of occurrence of the ore is somewhat different, and where the evidences of a direct igneous origin are less marked. ‘his class comprehends those lenticular masses of ore which are usu- ally included within gneissoidal rocks, and whose dip and strike coincide with that of the gneiss itself, but whose dimensions are limited. Such is the character of most of the Swedish deposits, and of many of those of Northern New York. Such beds of ore as these may in some cases be the result of segregating action; but the facts seem rather to indicate that they are made up of the ruins of preéxisting igneous masses, which have been broken and worn down, during the turbulent action which we may suppose to have been preéminently manifested during the azoic epoch, and then swept away by currents, and deposited in the depressions of the sedimentary strata in process of formation. In confirmation of this hypothesis in regard to the origin of these lenticular masses of ore in the gneissoidal rocks, it may be noticed that the ores occurring in this form and position are less pure than those of decidedly igneous origin, as if they had become more or less mixed with sand during the process of re- construction, so:that they not unfrequently require to be separated from their earthy impurities by washing before they can be ad- vantageously used. Again, 1t may be observed in the case of some of the ore-beds of this class, that the bed-rock or foot-wall is considerably rougher or more irregular in its outline than the hanging wall or roof, as if depositions had taken place upon a surface originally rough and uneven, the upper surface of the ore being considerably smoother and more regular than the lower one, and sometimes separated from the rock above by a thin seam of calcareous matter. | There is still another form of deposit which is not unfre- quently met with in the Lake Superior region, and which may be seen on a grand scale in the Pilot Knob of Missouri. This consists of a series of quartzose beds of great thickness, and passing gradually into specular iron, which frequently forms bands of nearly pure ore, alternating with bands of quartz more or less mixed with the same substance. Some of the deposits in the Lake Superior region are of this class, and they are very extensive, and capable of furnishing a vast amount of ore, al- though most of it is so mixed with silicious matter, as to require separating by washing, before use. Heavy beds of nearly pure ore occur at the Pilot Knob, interstratified with beds of a poorer quality. Deposits of this character are usually very distinctly i J. D. Whitney on the Ores of Iron in the Azoic System. 48 bedded, and the ore shows a greater tendency to cleave into thin laminee parallel with the bedding, in proportion to its freedom from silicious matter. These deposits seem to have been of sedi- mentary origin, having been originally strata of silicious sand, which has since been metamorphosed. The iron ore may have been introduced either by the sublimation of metalliferous vapors from below during the deposition of the silicious particles, or by precipitation from a ferriferous solution, im which the stratified rocks were in process of formation. The great deposits of ore which have been alluded to above, agreeing as they do in the characteristic features of their mode of occurrence, especially in the magnitude of the scale on which they are developed, are all, beyond doubt, situated in the same geological position; they all belong to the oldest known system of rocks, the azoic. This name was first applied by Murchison to the ferriferous rocks of Scandinavia, and the geological posi- tion of the great iron regions of this country is precisely similar to those of Sweden. There is ample evidence that the lowest known fossiliferous strata, characterized by the same peculhar types of organic life, both im this country and in Europe, rest uniformly upon the iron-bearing strata throughout the Northwest, from New York to Missouri and Arkansas. We have thus seen that the earliest geological epoch was char- acterized by the presence of the ores of iron in quantity far exceeding that of any succeeding one; indeed, we may infer that the ruins of the iron ores of this class have furnished the mate- rial from which many of the ores of more recent geological age may have been derived. The condition of things in reference to the ores of iron which existed during the azoic period underwent a complete change, and rarely do we find in any fossiliferous rocks any signs of unmistakably eruptive ores. It is certain that we nowhere, out of the azoic system, find masses of ore of such extent and purity as those which have just been alluded to. By far the larger portion of the azoic series on the earth’s surface being coy- ered up by the fossiliferous rocks, the ore which that formation contains 1s equally concealed, and it is only in those regions where no deposition of newer strata upon the oldest rocks has taken place that the treasures of iron are made accessible. In this respect our country is preéminently favored, and there can be no doubt that the immense deposits of 1ron ore stored away in the Northwest are destined at some future time to add to our national wealth more than has been or ever will be contributed by the gold of California. It may seem absurd to speculate on the exhaustion of the stratified ores of England or of the Hastern United States; yet nothing is more certain, than that the present rate of production in the former country cannot be kept up for. any very great length of time, without making the cost of pro- 44 Obituary of Prof. Z. Thompson. curing ore so great, that other regions which now seem very remote from a market will be able to compete with the most _ favored iron-producing districts of England. Practically, the views which have been presented above are of importance, as leading us to expect large and valuable deposits of the ores of iron wherever the azoic rocks are found to exist over any considerable surface. Thus it may safely be predicted that important discoveries of ore will be made, in the now almost unexplored regions of British America, which are covered by rocks of the azoie period. Indeed, large beds of ore have already been found in Canada, which are, in character and position, anal- ogous to those of Northern New York. Art. VII.—Obituary of Professor Zadoc Thompson.* Professor ZADoc THompson, died at Burlington on the 19th day of January, 1856, of ossification of the heart. He was born in Bridgewater, Windsor County, Vermont, in the year 1796, and, at the time of his death, must have been in the sixtieth year of his age. His early hfe was a continual struggle with poverty, and his education was acquired while successfully com- batting the evils of pecuniary embarrassment. At the advanced age of twenty-seven years he was graduated at the University of Vermont, having for his classmate in 1823, the Hon. Frederick H. Allen, an eminent lawyer now living in Boston, and War- ren Hoxie, of Westford, Vermont. Within a twelve-month from his graduation he published at Montpelier his ‘Gazetteer of Vermont,” pp. 812; and, in 1838, he published, at Burlington, his ‘‘ History of Vermont from its earliest settlement to the close of the year 1832,” pp. 252. In the year 1832, he was editor of, and principal contributor to, the “Green Mountain Repository,” a monthly magazine published for about a year in Burlington. After pursuing his study of theology, and occasionally teaching at the ‘‘ Vermont Episcopal Institute” and elsewhere, he was prepared for orders and was ordained to the diaconate in the Protestant Episcopal Church by the Rt. Rev. Bishop Hopkins, in 1836. He subsequently preached in several parishes in Northern Vermont and New York, and supplied the pulpit at St. Paul’s Church, Burlington, during the illness or absence of the rector; but his feeble health prevented his assuming the ac- tive and onerous labors of a parish. From the time of the publication of the books above men- tioned, he had contemplated a larger and more comprehensive * Communicated to the Franklin (Vt.) County Journal, and sent to this Journal by the author, George F. Houghton, Esq. Obituary of Prof. Z Thompson. 45 work which should embrace the General History of Vermont, both natural and civil. From 1838 to 1842 he devoted the ereater part of his time to preparing and publishing his ‘“ Nat- ural, Civil and Statistical History of Vermont.” The prosecution of this purpose necessarily brought him into contact or correspondence with the naturalists of the country. In completing his account of the birds of Vermont, he was greatly assisted by Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, of Boston; and in de- termining several species of reptiles and fishes, he was aided by Dr. D. H. Storer, also of Boston. For a full description of our molluscous animals, he was indebted to Prof. Charles B. Adams, then of Middlebury College, and to Prof. George W. Benedict, then of the University of Vermont. For his catalogue of plants, he was indebted to the late William Oakes, of Ipswich, Mass., to Prof. Joseph Torrey, William F. Macrae, John Carey, and others. With these aids in his arduous labors, Prof. Thomp- son succeeded in embracing in his work everything of special importance relative to the Natural and Civil History of Ver- mont; and published it in so condensed and cheap a form as to place it within the reach of every family in the State, having but little regard to a pecuniary recompense from the sale of a book which had cost him so much travel, research, time and ex- . pense in its preparation. Prof. Thompson found time also to prepare annual astronomt- cal calculations for the Messrs. Waltons of Montpelier, and te publish a valuable arithmetic and elementary work on the Geol- ogy and Geography of Vermont, for the use of schools, both — written in the systematic, lucid and condensed manner which im- arted so much value to all of his publications. In 1845, Governor Slade appomted Prof. Charles B. Adams State Geologist, and, with the approbation of the Governor, the latter made Prof. Thompson one of his assistants in the field la- bor. In connection with the Rev. 8. R. Hall, the other assist- ant, he visited and explored, ‘more or less thoroughly,” about 110 townships in one season. Prof. Thompson was actively engaged in this important scientific labor until the Legislature of Vermont neglected to make an appropriation for a final report on the geology of our State, and thus permitted the materials, man- uscripts, books, and specimens belonging to the survey to remain at Montpelier and Burlington, locked up in about fifty boxes. The brief and expressive report of Prof. Thompson addressed to Gov. Coolidge, in October, 1849, was published in the Appendix of the House Journal for that year and is a sad commentary on the folly of which our State has been guilty in regard to the matter of a geological survey. After the suspension of the geo- logical survey, Dr. Horace Haton, Governor of the State in 1847, appointed Prof. Thompson to carry out the resolution of the 46 ~ Obituary of Prof. Z. Thompson. Legislature in relation to international literary and scientific ex- changes; and in pursuance of his appointment he presented the exchange system in its clearest light, so that it commended itself to the ‘approbation of every benevolent mind.” 'The preparation of the report of ‘‘ Proceedings and Instructions,” which, by the way, was beautifully printed in a pai io of 80 pages, reflected ereat credit upon Mr. Thompson, and upon the State, and it is greatly to be deplored that the historical interest which was then awakened throughout the State by the visit of the founder of the system of exchanges, and by the labors of such men as Prof. Thompson, Hon. Hiland Hall, of Bennington, Henry Stevens, of Barnet, Daniel P. Thompson, of Montpelier, Prof. James D. But- ler, then of Norwich, Vt., and others, should so soon and so thoroughly have subsided and become almost extinct. In June, 1850, Prof. Thompson delivered, upon invitation, an address at Boston before the Boston Society of Natural History, in which he made the announcement that “what he had accom- plished in the business of Natural History, he had done without any associates engaged im like pursuats, without having any access to collections of specimens, and almost without books.” In that ex- cellent address, (which was printed by his devoted friend and neighbor, Chauncey Goodrich, Esq., 11 1850, in a pamphlet of 82 pages,) he illustrated the importance and difficulties of a. thorough cultivation of natural history in country places, insist- ing that a habit of observation and comparison of objects of natural history could be as quickly acquired in the country as in the city, and urging that the study of natural history should be more generally taught in our common schools and colleges, for the obvious reason that such a study “ would refine and improve the moral sensibilities of our people, and sharpen and invigorate their intellectual powers.” In these labors, beset with the difficulties so freely confessed before his audience at Boston, on the occasion of the delivery of the last mentioned address, he passed his quiet life. At one time he was a teacher of science; at another time he was prose- cuting his researches in natural history; and then he might be found preaching in his modest and reverential manner the sublime doctrines of the Christian creed which he had adopted ; and, whether in or out of the pulpit, he was always seen and known as the industrious, patient, humble and exemplary disci- ple of Him who was born in the manger and died on the cross. Prof. Thompson thus won friends not “‘in single spies but in bat- talions,” friends who knowing the anxieties he felt to see the wonders of the great exhibition at London, in 1851, gladly put into his purse that “ material aid” of which teaching and preach- ing and authorship had not gathered a superabundance. Chiefly through the kindness of frends, which he has beautifully ac- Obituary of Prof. Z. Thompson. zy knowledged in one of his books, he was enabled to enjoy a trip to the Old World, ‘“beholding the wonders of the great deep, and seeing and admiring the wonderful things of Nature and Art which lie beyond it.” After an absence of three months, spend- ing a few weeks in London and Paris, and after traveling about 7500 miles, he came back refreshed in spirit and health to his humble dwelling at Burlington, and after a while yielded to the importunities of his friends, and published a neat volume of 148 pages, entitled a “Journal of a trip to London, Paris, and the Great Exhibition in 1851.” Although this “Journal” is com- posed of notes for each day from May till August, jotted down when travelling or sight-seeime, for the private eye of family and friends, and with no expectation that they would ever be printed, yet it contains much that is new and valuable, and although published as a “thank offering to his friends,” the reading public have perused it with equal pleasure and profit. Since the publication of his History of Vermont in 1842, rail- roads and magnetic telegraphs have been introduced into the State. and other changes have taken place; and early in 1853, Prof. Thompson published an Appendix to the history, chiefly in the department of natural history. This Appendix, although containing only 64 pages, is a valuable supplement to his large work. In the preface, he intimates his intention to re-write the whole history. We have now come, in chronological order, to the last work, upon which the Professor was engaged. It will be remembered that the labors of Prof. Adams and his assistant had ceased — in 1847 on behalf of the State. The cold shoulder of “‘men most noted for wisdom and virtue” was turned toward them, after it was an established fact “that as much labor was performed and as much investigation effected as were ever accomplished with the same expenditure in any other State.” Prof. Adams’s final report was never made, and January 19th, 1853, he died on the island of St. Thomas, W. L, cut down in the prime of life and usefulness, when all that remained of the Geological Survey of Vermont was shut up in short hand in the field-books of the State Geologist and his assistants, or locked up in the fifty boxes of unticketed and untrimmed specimens at Burling- ton and Montpelier. Years after the field work was done and when Prof. Adams was slumbering in his grave, the men ‘‘ most noted for their wisdom and virtue,” discovered that they had made a mistake*in arresting the progress of the survey. Then it was that Prof. Zadoc Thompson was appointed by Statute, State Naturalist with the following duties: “to enter upon a thorough prosecution and completion of the geological survey of the State, embracing therein a full and scientific examination and description of its rocks, soils, metals and minerals; make 48 Obituary of Prof. Z. Thompson. careful and complete assays and analyses of the same, and pre- pare the results of his labors for publication under the three fol- lowing titles, to wit: Ist. Physical Geography, Scientific Geol- ogy and Mineralogy. 2d. Economical Geology, embracing Bot- any and Agriculture. 8d. General Zoology of the State.”— Session Laws, 1858, pp. 45, 46. He was pursuing the labors of this responsible task which the State, honorably to herself and to him, had commissioned him to perform, when his death sorely bereaved his family and friends and the community. On the same day, three years be- fore, his predecessor went to his long home; both left the mat- ter of a geological survey, in which they had delighted and had spent long nights and laborious days, still unfinished. At the time of his death, Mr. Thompson was Professor of Natural History in the University of Vermont, an institution to which he had been greatly attached since his graduation in 1823. The self-taught naturalist who had devoted his life in a quiet and unpretending way to independent scientific inquiry and the labors of authorship and the ministry, died in his hum- ble dwelling near the University, with his intellectual armor on, ere “his eye had grown dim or his natural force abated.” Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, editor of the Boston Atlas, and a natu- ralist of extended acquirement, thus alludes in touching lan- guage to the death of his valued friend. ‘ His loss, both as a citizen and a public man,—he has not left his superior in science behind him in his own State—is one of no ordinary character. We have known him long and well, and in speaking of such a loss we know not which most to sympa- thize with, the family from whom has been taken the upright, devoted and kind hearted head, or that larger family of science who have lost an honored and most valuable member. Modest and unassuming, diligent and indefatigable in his scientific pur- suits, attentive to all, whether about him or at a distance, and whether friends or strangers, no man will be more missed not merely in his immediate circle of family and friends, but in that larger sphere of the lovers of natural science, than Zadoe Thompson.” f ss * = We have known him well since 1834, in his various relations as a teacher, a clergyman, a Professor, a correspondent, and a friend. During the quarter of a century in which he was de- voted to the instruction of youth, to the labors of authorship, and to scientific research, he exhibited ever ah unselfish and an unambitious spirit. He loved his pupils, his friends, his church, his associates, his State, his town, and above all, his home. As a teacher he was kind and thorough; as a clergyman what has been appropriately called his “deep and unconquerable modesty of spirit” prevented his ever rising above the Diaconate Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 49 in the Protestant Episcopal Church. Asa fellow-clergyman in that able paper, the New York Church Journal, unites, ‘‘ the un- certainty of his health for many years past prevented his under- taking the labors of a parish. His gentle, quiet, and deep piety of character won him universal esteem. He was chiefly known by the many works in which he has embodied the history, the topography and the natural endowment of his native State. In natural science, his proficiency was so remarkable that he was in correspondence with most of the leading naturalists of this coun- try and many of those abroad. He received one of the medals of the late French Exhibition in this department. His place thus made vacant in Vermont, it will be hard to fill.” As an author, he has won high distinction for his researches and the accuracy of date and detail which characterize all of his historical productions. His astronomical and meteorological ob- servations were carefully made and noted, and he was one of the best and most reliable correspondents ef the Smithsonian Institution. As. his life has been chiefly spent in the development and illustration of the natural productions of his native State; the scientific world, and especially Vermonters, will cherish his memory as that of a man who devoted his life with energy and singleness of purpose to objects of lasting interest and useful- ness to the whole community. Art. VIIL.—On the Influence of the Solar Radiation on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions; — ‘by J. H. Guapstoneg, Ph.D., F.R.S.* 4 SINCE I laid before the British Association my former Report, some of the experiments there detailed have been repeated, and the investigation has been pursued further in the same direction. I have the honor now to present the results which have been obtained. The experiments about to be described were conducted, not as before at Stockwell, but in Tavistock Square, London. The locality was not quite so favorable to the growth of plants, but they had always the advantage (unless otherwise stated) of stand- ing on tables at the windows of a large upper room having a southeast aspect, so that they obtained the full benefit of the morning and noonday sun. ‘I'he apartment was never artificially heated, but in the winter time it must have been a few degrees higher in temperature than the external atmosphere. * From the Report of the Twenty-fourth Meeting of British Assoc. held at Liverpool, Sept. 1854; p. 373. London, 1855. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. 64.—JULY, 1856, 7 50 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. The colored bell-glasses described in the previous Report were made use of. Iam now able to give a more accurate description of what solar rays were actually transmitted by them. The effects of the different glasses on the prismatic structum were as follows :— Colorless glass. No perceptible difference from the normal spectrum. Yellow glass. ‘The red rays were cut off, but the line C was just visible in the orange-colored region. The yellow and green portions of the spectrum were quite natural, except perhaps that they were rather more uniform in color than usual; the blue was rather bright above the double line F, but there was very little illumination in the portion more refracted, and the violet rays were quite unseen. ‘The lines D, EH, 5 and F were very visible. fied glass. ‘he spectrum consisted of two luminous spaces, separated by a broad band of perfect darkness. ‘The one was of a red and orange color, commencing between B and C, and appar- ently cut off by the dark line D. The other was faintly illumi- nated with an olive-green tint, commencing about the most intensely yellow part of the ordinary spectrum, and continuing to about 5 (which was barely visible), and then passing into a lilac hue, which gradually faded off, till it became imperceptible per- haps a little below the lines F. Blue glass, The spectrum had a very singular appearance, consisting of several distinct luminous bands. First there was a reddish band of considerable brilliancy, occupying a space be- yond that of the least refrangible portion of the visible spectrum, This was separated by a dark space from a very narrow but bright band somewhere near the line B. Its color was very dif- ferent from any of those of the normal spectrum, but perhaps it approached nearest to the orange. Then, after another dark space, came a bright yellow band of greater width, just above the line D, which, however, was not itself perceptible. The whole yellow portion of the spectrum was cut off, and there was no illumination till about midway between EH and 0, where a bright green suddenly appeared. ‘This passed into a pale green, - where there was very little illumination, but not perfect darkness, till at about F an intense blue appeared, continuing through the region of the violet, to the end of the most refrangible portion of the spectrum. The lines 0, F,-and G were very distinct, as well as some about d and H. : This analysis of the light transmitted by the various glasses, confirms the description previously given of their character, name- ly, that ‘‘ The blue glass cuts off by far the greater portion of the luminous rays, but admits the chemical rays freely ; it may also be considered as interfering much with the transmission of heat. The red glass, on the contrary, freely admits the calorific influ- Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 51 énce, but stops the chemical, whilst, like the blue, it diminishes greatly the luminous. The yellow again scarcely decreases the uluminating power of light, but almost destroys the chemical action.” The series of experiments on hyacinths, which was described in the last Report, was repeated with additional attention to the effects of partial or complete darkness. The large colorless, blue, red, and yellow bell-glasses were employed, together with a par- tially obscured colorless shade, and a partially obscured yellow shade; and another experiment was instituted under a glass shade placed in a large box, so that the light was completely ex: cluded, except when for a few moments the lid might be removed for the purpose of observing the progress of the experiment. As in the preceding experiment, the bulbs were all of the same description, of a healthy appearance, and of about the same size. After being weighed, they were placed as before on the top of colorless glasses, filled with pure water, and covered with the large bell-jars. In this case the jars were themselves placed upon the perforated boards, with the arrangement of tarlatane, &c., mentioned in the previous paper. The experiments were com- menced on December 10th; each of them was successful; the results accorded in some points with those of the former occas sion, but in other respects there was considerable discrepancy. The experiments made in partial or complete obscurity were per- haps the most instructive. Rootlets began to appear immediately under the dark shade, and on December 26th, that is, after sixteen days, they were found to be 14 inchin length, They grew rapidly, and were very numerous. They were thin and long, and appeared to have little strength. Under the obscured colorless and obscured yellow glasses, the rootlets also began to grow quickly, becoming three- quarters of an inch long in a fortnight’s time, while under the blue and colorless glass exposed to the full power of the light, the rootlets did not so quickly attain any length, and in the same space of time there was scarcely anything observable under the red or yellow glass. The roots continued to grow under the - obscured glasses until the beginning of February, but they arrived more rapidly at maturity under the influence of the white and blue hght. Under the red shade the roots never at: tained any considerable length, but they were stout and strong. Under the yellow shade there was scarcely any growth below the bulb until near the end of January, when a few long strag- gling roots made their appearance. This is very accordant with the effect that was observed during the previous season to be produced by the colored glasses. This shows that the develop- ment of the root takes place most rapidly in the absence of all solar radiations; that partial obscurity is also favorable; that the less refrangible rays of the spectrum had especial power to 52 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. retard their growth, and that the luminous and calorific rays had peculiar actions of their own. As to the leaves, little appearance of growth was observable in any of the hyacinths till December 26th, when those under the colorless and blue glasses began to shoot; that under the red glass followed very soon, while those under the yellow and the partially and wholly obscured glasses gave no sign for about three weeks longer. The leaves grew most rapidly in the blue hight. The following comparisons of the length of the leaves under the various luminous influences may be interesting. They were taken on the 18th and 21st of February, when all the plants were in vigorous growth, but not one of them had flowered, and on March 22nd, when the plants had attained their full maturity. February 13. February 21. March 22. Under the colorless glass, .......... 4 inches 6 inches 11 inches « blue PERT INS,- pe 6 er 8." 14 ” red Bet a WenG ate el otehe - Wire BP BEMe. ‘ yellow Moa ere Ol oe A ad erin 2 Me REV ff obscured colorless glass, ..) 3 “ 34“ 10) cM f obscured yellow Ts IES AM a4 aed pola al geod Ft dp a A ee ot Me pac TO °:* The flower-stalk very nearly kept pace with the leaves. There | was a greater difference in the periods at which the petals opened than in the former series of experiments; those under the blue and colorless glasses took the lead, and those under the partially obscured glasses were the last. They opened for the most part during the last days of February. Under the red shade two flowers grew, but they were thin and straggling: the same was the character of the plant that grew in the dark. There were two flower-stalks under the partially obscured color- less glass; they were never developed, however, but were found at the end of March losing their color and becoming rotten. The experiments were terminated on March 22d, excepting the two under the partially obscured glasses, which were allowed to continue till the 30th. The respective lengths of the flower- stalks were then,— Under the colorlegsielass ’...\;..60 49st oe 13 inches. iy blue FL a hath (oh tess ote li ee 13 i: red Aarau oped «Weis Ree Mek is, fF yellow. ieee we ae ie ea 12 & 4 obscured colorless glass ...... 4 if 1 obscured yelloway ec sae 10 ‘ ei dark MD: 2a. ok De 13 ‘ The hyacinths having been removed from the water in which their roots had been immersed, were suffered to dry in the open air of the room for twenty-four hours, and were then weighed. Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 53 Primary weight | Fully devel- Actual of bulb. oped plant. increase, Under the colorless glass, ........++, 936 grs. 1494 ers. 558 ers. i‘ blue Som te deat ait aR 0g 862 “ 1472) * GLOn re iy red Oo ah cichs Ceavavetsete 856 “ 1438 ° 52. his yellow OL Na tele eo taleag tains 1008 “ 1406 “ 398e5~ “f obscured colorless glass. ... 873 “ 1591 “ TB . obscured yellow Bibt ins od 872“ 1556 “ 684 “ = APIS) ie hs 3. ote ho on "63" 12057" 442 “ If, instead of observing the actual increase of weight, we compare the original weight of the bulb with that of the fully developed plant, we obtain the following proportions :— Under the colorless glass as ........... 1000 : 1596. ial akon the ade Rene eee 1000 : 1708. 4 red Shs RE Ab ort ge ails 1000 : 16380. . OV Hol ty unum sist sure. wks 1000 : 1895. sh obscured colorless glass as... 1000 : 1822. eo obscured yellow “ Le. OLOOO) el Tee. ” dark i ft LOCO 3 Loge This increase in weight in the growing hyacinth is due to the fixation of water, and not to the decomposition of carbonic acid in the atmosphere; at least a smaller bulb which was placed under a colorless shade, and cut off from the external atmos- phere by the edges of the glass dipping into water, grew and flowered perfectly well; and when removed from the shade on March 22d, and dried as the others were, it gave the following weight :— | Primary weight of bulb. Fully developed plant. Actual increase. 5 gers. 1167 grs. 542 ors. or as 1000 : 1867,— a larger proportional increase of weight than in any of the other experiments, the actual increase being about the same as that of the other plant which grew under the colorless glass. The leaves that grew in the dark were perfectly etiolated, excepting just at the tips, where they showed the normal green color gradually shading off as it descended. The leaves that appeared in the experiments with the obscured glasses, were somewhat lighter in tint than those growing where the direct radiance of the sun could find access. The character of the light, under which the flowers were grown, did not affect their color at all in the way that might have been expected. They were all, as on the former occasion, of an equally deep purple; even that which grew in complete darkness exhibited the same depth of color in all the petals, excepting a few of the lower ones. ‘The purple flower under the colorless glass when fading turned to red; and this was also the case under the blue and 54 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. yellow glasses; but the flower under the red glass showed no trace of red color, even when it had quite shrivelled up, nor was there any such change in the intense purple that appeared where light was excluded. In such experiments as those just detailed, it is difflcult to separate what might be the effect of adventitious circumstances from the genuine effect of the diversity of light. However, we may safely remark in the experiment which was conducted in perfect obscurity—the rapid and abundant growth of thin root- lets, the general healthiness of the plant, the non-formation of chlorophyll, but the production of the coloring matter of the flower, not altered in its subsequent fading. The two experi- - ments performed in partial obscurity appeared as closely alike as possible, until the last week, when one of the plants died. The fact that the chemical rays were cut off from one of them, made no apparent difference. Their backwardness as compared with the other flowers, was probably owing to their having been placed in a position which was somewhat colder than that of those which received the full light of the sun. The effects of obscu- rity were observable in them in a modified manner, and the both absorbed much more water than the other plants did.. The effect of the red glass in interfering with the length of the roots, and in producing a badly developed plant, was observed both in this and in the former series of experiments. Its power of pre- venting the reddening of the faded flower is remarkable. The effect of the yellow glass in causing the rootlets to be few and straggling, and in diminishing the absorption of water, was also noticed in both instances. The blue glass appeared to favor the development of the hyacinth. That the green coloring matter of leaves requires the action of light for its production, has long been universally admitted, and Dr. Daubeny has shown that it depends on the luminous ray. From analogy, and from a few observations by Davy, Senebier, and others, the same has been assumed to hold good in respect to the colors of flowers, but the purple hyacinth bears other witness, and should induce us to doubt this too hasty con- clusion. A number of experiments on germination were made during the spring. The seeds experimented on were those of the wheat and the pea; and in every case both were employed, in order that if there should be a different effect of light on the monoco- tyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, it might be seen. Seeds of familiar plants and of great commercial importance were chosen, as it was supposed a greater degree of interest would naturally attach to experiments on them, and it might happen that some observations of value to the agriculturist might be made. | we won edb Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 55 The first series of experiments was made in common air, under the seven various influences of colored light and obscurity, which have been described in treating of the hyacinths. ‘The colored shades were arranged before the windows, as described above, and they dipped into plates of water, so that throughout the ex- periments they were filled with an unchanged atmosphere, satu- rated with moisture. Twelve grains of wheat and twelve peas were taken for each separate experiment, and their weight was noted while they were still dry. They were placed on bricks within the glass shades, the bricks standing in the water, so that they were always damp. Another arrangement was made, simi- lar to that just described in every particular, except that the seeds were in the open air of the room, without any cover. The experiments were commenced on April 21st. The fol- lowing is a table of the weather, and of the temperature taken in the shade at mid-day during the time that the various experi- ments with peas and wheat continued :— April 22. cloudy May 15. fine 69° | 8S. do. rE. variable 65 «24, do. dee fine 66 Ca. variable be cloudy and wet 64 fess do. 60° ee BOs fine 66 eee ae wet 57 ae 205 do. 67 28, variable 56 Sec DOR ie es Bos aaa : sae Hite do. 56 i 22. cloudy and wet 64 OID ste pss w, 0. 95 nye ey es fine 65 May 1. wet 55 a 24, variable 63 jee variable 55 O20. fine 66 ad 3 do. 59 #5 26. do. 67 wie: fine 61 Se Oil wet 63 eg fs variable 63 ier ke) | eR On die ty 6. cloudy 60 Me oo wet 63 eRe de: AN a esd ee 56 “30. do. 63 Mrs eS Be variable Bs ei BL fine, but cloudy 65 a. oe wet 60 June 1. fine 66 Me NOE fine 58 a aes wet 63 LY cloudy 62 neste’) fine 65 oh) ee fine 60 iy eae: i Me Ae Aber Les cloudy 64 cared cloudy 63 Me hie oc vetdse le one 65 Weed 5) do. 63 We shall first consider the growth of the wheat; afterwards that of the peas; and then compare the two. On April 26th the corn seeds were found just beginning to burst under all the seven glasses, those under the obscured yellow being the most advanced. Further growth was visible the following day under that glass, and also under the obscured colorless, and the yellow, though the plume did not appear in any case till the 29th. On May Ist the radicles under the color- less and blue glasses were of considerable length, but those under the obscured colorless and the red were longer, while the longest were under the yellow glass. On April 29th plumes 56 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. appeared under the red and obscured colorless glasses, and in the dark. They appeared two days later under the colorless and the blue, while the seeds under the obscured yellow had an un- healthy look. On the 4th of May long etiolated leaflets were found in the dark; under both obscured glasses the wheat had also shot up long leaves; under the red and yellow glasses there were plumes of 1 or 2 inches in length; while under the color- less and blue they only reached half an inch. The wheat-plants under the colorless glass then began to grow more rapidly, and soon gained the advantage of those under the blue, and still more of those under the red. On the 8th they measured 8 inches, while those that had grown in the dark measured 6. On the 12th the wheat-plants were more fully examined, and drawings of them were made. It was then found that under the colorless glass ten of the twelve seeds had grown. The leaves were erect, of a full green color, from 4 to 5 inches in height, roots long and thin, five in number, taking firm hold of the brick. They had no side rootlets, but were fringed with hairs. Under the blue glass, the wheat appeared like that under the colorless, but smaller. Under the red, only four plants grew, and they were not so regular in form, size, or general aspect as those under the colorless glass. Where there was this pecu- liarity,—the green stalk had been unable to burst the transparent membranous sheath, and had forced itself out in a kind of loop, at that part where the sheath sprung out of the seed. The roots were generally flaccid. Under the yellow glass, the radicles were so strong and bent so decidedly downwards, that they raised the seed completely on end: they were thickly covered with hairs. The stalks were short and strong, and generally bent. Under the obscured colorless glass only seven seeds had germinated. The leaves were of a pale green color, and had not succeeded in bursting the membranous sheath; the roots were very long. Under the obscured yellow glass, the plants were of a greener color than the preceding. In the dark all the plants were weak, and of a very pale green color, almost yellow; the radicles had ~ many rootlets branching out from them. After this, the plants under the colorless glass continued to grow healthily: the hairs along the roots became very long and thick, and on the 22nd of May, ramifications of the rootlets began to appear. The plants under the blue did not continue so healthy, nor did those under the red. Under the yellow glass, . both the upper plant and the roots continued to grow. Under the obscured yellow glass and in the dark, the plants also con- tinued growing. On the 26th, a more full examination and fresh drawings were made. Under the colorless glass there were ten wheat plants, generally 8 or 10 inches in height. Under the blue glass there were several very thin weak plants, only » Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 57 about 2 inches high. Under the red, the development was but an inch and a half, in the case of three plants. The rest that were growing had not succeeded in breaking the membranous sheath, but were contorted in their efforts to escape. Under the yellow, three plants had grown like those under the colorless glass; three others were not so fully developed, while the re- maining four had not germinated. Under the obscured colorless glass, the wheat had not grown since May 12th. Under the obscured yellow, I found six plants. In the dark, the plants had grown much as under the obscured yellow glass, but they were still longer, weaker, and paler in color. : On June 5th, the experiments were stopped. The plants under the colorless glass were healthy in every respect, and were of a better green than any of the others. Under the red glass, one of the plants was found to have shot up several small leaflets outside the transparent sheath, which it had been unable to lerce. : The following table shows the number of seeds of wheat which had put forth roots, and the average length of the princi- pal roots; and also the number of seeds from which plants had grown, together with the average length of the principal leaves. Roots. _ | Leaves. ; __|No. of plants.) Length. ~ |INo. of plants. ~ Length; REPOOIOSS, e o's ace cae ee 10 2°5 inches 10 10 inches Bee Wee oS cakes 8% 6 O75. 6 F eeaihh RR sgt chste vs ioishecs Mate 6 8 35 " 4 4h ot MeCUO Wes s/. es5.5 s Ee aa 7 2 « 6 Opac Obscured colorless, ...... 6 35 : 3 Paes Obscured yellow, ........ i ; he «“ t 7 Sie MR i bg Fea alew, 9 aids 7 3 2 6 13) The plants were removed from the bricks, spread out on the table, and allowed to dry in the air for eighteen hours. The following table shows the weight of those which had grown under each of the various conditions of light. The original - weight of the twelve corn-seeds was in each instance 8 grains, giving as the average weight of each seed 0°66 gers. No. of plants 4 nod ich Average in- which had Weight. rage weight) crease upon germinated. of each. original weight. PCR ci. haac o'n, oes «wie ais 10 31 grs. 31 grs. 2°4 grs. RE ised os di aes 0, ¥ 60:0 6 Sa 066 “ Ont Te ds oe we’ 8 45 “ 056 “ —O1 “ IEE RA eae ee 7 8. Pa DEB ss A G4 Obscured colorless, ...... 6 ge et 066 “ Orie Obscured yellow,........ 7 1G st Lod. 1K Oia. s, oh oe 7k i 7 Sete pig OiGr a The increase in weight of the plants which had grown under the colorless, the dark, and the yellow glasses, was due, of course, SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856, 8 58 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. to the fixation of water, for there was no supply of carboni¢ acid from the air, and the quantity of substance which the roots could absorb from the bricks must have been very trifling. The comparative experiment in which the seeds were exposed to the open air of the room did not come to anything. Not one of the seeds succeeded even in bursting the tunic, doubtless because the dry atmosphere prevented their ever retaining suffi- cient moisture. The presence of soil about the germinating seeds, or a con- stant change of air, would probably have modified these results ; yet the conditions observed in this series of experiments were thought necessary, in order to have the full effect of the different sorts of light about the seeds themselves, for a soil necessarily produces partial if not total obscurity. The deprivation of other sources of carbon, beyond the cotyledons of the seed itself, also answered certain purposes. On examining the results, the follow- ing conclusions may be drawn, as far as wheat is concerned growing under the conditions of the experiment. ‘The absence of the chemical rays favors the first growth of rootlets, and the presence of the luminous rays does not impede it. Afterwards the opposite effect takes place; the roots are stopped in their development by the yellow ray much more than by all the rays of the spectrum in combination. ‘The red or calorific ray is on the whole the most favorable to the growth of the roots, even more so than the complete absence of all solar radiations. ‘The shooting forth of the plume is also favored by the withdrawal of the chemical rays, especially just at first; but the full and healthy development of leaves requires all the rays of the spectrum, the. luminous being particularly necessary. Several other peculiari- ties may be noted; for instance, the downward tendency of the roots under the pure luminous influence; the comparatively greater development and strength of the membranous sheath under the calorific agency; and the late but abundant growth of side-rootlets, where all the solar radiations were admitted. The results of the experiments on wheat recorded in the pre- . vious Report, where there was the presence of soil and change of air, appear to indicate still more clearly the beneficial charac- ter of the luminous emanations, for the plants under the yellow shade were found even to excel those which had grown in white light, while, as in the experiment just detailed, the cutting off of the luminous ray by the deep blue glass militated greatly against the health of the plants. The protection of the rootlets from the yellow ray may be fairly considered an advantage, but a proper series of experiments on wheat-seeds surrounded by earth is still a desideratum. We have now to consider the growth of the peas under the different solar influences. It has been already stated that twelve Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 59 peas soaked in water were placed on the bricks along with the wheat seeds, on April 21st. On the 24th they were found to be swollen and beginning to burst. The seeds under the yellow, obscured yellow, and obscured colorless glasses, were the more rapid in their first development. On the 29th, the plumes began to appear under the obscured colorless, yellow, and red shades, and two days afterwards under the blue and colorless. The lants under the obscured yellow glass appeared very unhealthy. he radicles grew astonishingly under the yellow glass, and be- came very long under the red and obscured colorless. On May 8th, the plants in complete or partial obscurity were found to be several inches high; under the red, 2 inches; under the yellow, not quite so much; while even on the 11th, the plants under the blue had only just developed themselves, and under the colorless glass only one seed had put forth a stalk, and that was but half an inch in length. On the 12th they were more fully examined, and drawings were made. Under the colorless glass, the peas resembled the plume only in the first stage of development, the principal root short and thick, with short and thick secondary rootlets, all fringed with hairs. Under the blue, the peas were in a somewhat more advanced stage. Under the red, ten plants had grown,— roots straggling, stalk bending towards the lght, with many leaflets of a deep green color. The plants under the yellow glass were characterized by enormous roots, which turned away from the light in a very marked way. Nine of those under the. obscured colorless had long roots, long succulent weak stalks, and pale green leaflets. Under the obscured yellow, the plants appeared for the most part with smaller roots, though two of them, which were nearest the light, had grown with a stalk. In the dark, six of the peas had grown,—roots irregular, having few side-rootlets, stalks succulent, but tolerably erect, bearing yellow leaflets. The plants in the red light continued to grow healthily, some being 6 inches high on the 15th; under the yellow and obscured yellow, they also grew healthily ; under the obscured colorless, the stalks were found on the 22nd no longer capable of supporting themselves. The stalks in the dark were at. the same time erect, and 10 inches in length. On the 26th, — the seeds under the colorless glass were found to have made scarcely any advance since the 12th. Under the blue, one had grown tall and healthy, but the rest were very small. Under the red, the plants were growing healthily as on the 12th, but some of them had attained the height of 9 inches, and bore three or four secondary branches. Those under the yellow had grown, but did not appear healthy. Under the obscured colorless glass, the plants had grown since the 12th about as much as might have been expected from the time, but they were very weak. 60 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. Under the obscured yellow glass there were two very similar to, and nearly as large as, those under the obscured colorless. Six others were of the same character, but much smaller; the roots were very short. The plants in the dark had also grown since the 12th. On June 5th the experiments were discontinued. The longest pea-plant under the colorless glass was then only 1°75 inch in length; the secondary rootlets were remarkably short and thick. The plants under the blue appeared the most healthy; those under the yellow, whether in full light or obscured, showed con- siderable inclination to send out lateral branches. The stems of the plants in the dark were white, the leaflets were canary-yellow , those which had grown in partial obscurity were also much etio- lated. One of the peas under the obscured yellow had produced. a triple stem, and so had one of those under the obscured color- less glass. | The average length of the roots and stalks of those peas which had germinated under the different solar influences 1s given in the annexed table :— Tap roots. Stalks. ae (Ree? is No. of plants. Length. No. of plants. Length. Robe re is aes hcl ayer achevet idl Gicveiate 10 1 inch 10 1 inch 46 1 Ay AE Se AR a in Gee aarg 2 | es : % t 18 a ME ee a sig does ace tare d'cie yk i 11 Bt 4 15 «& iz MEW cps cin elon s alow mieten ni i 3 65 « t 10 a a Obscured colorless, .......... 10 Ce cus 9 Bio aN Obstured yellow, ......0.00s 10 i aia 10 it ems Pei ae RS CAR 12 A id 12 145 “ The plants were removed from the bricks and allowed to dry in the air for eighteen hours. The following table shows the increase of weight which had taken place in them during their growth :— Mie - 1. /No. 8 verage in- Pee te pee penteh hed Weight. jana of vented of ‘| germinated. each. original weight. COlorlessy 5 4.5 sj006 33 grs 10 54 ers 5'4 gprs 27 grs BME: Co lcie hs cate e ehee 345 “ 12 Tae i Hea on” EM eit biwindie os vee 30 fe 11 Al. 43 “ PEt PMB ooo ri ieee bid 8 34. 11 (7 a Oat ea Obscured colorless,..| 85°55 “ 10 BBE 83 « ae Obscured yellow, ...| 315 “ 10 85 “ oak dad Da ee ee eta ta es or S15. 4 12 150.4 125° “ 99 “ It being thought that the disproportionate weight of the plants which had grown in the dark might be partially owing to their not having become thoroughly air-dried in eighteen hours, on account of their succulent character, they were exposed m the * Very various. Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 61 same manner for forty-eight hours. Their weight was then re- duced to 66 grains, while those grown under the obscured color- less (succulent as they were) lost in the same time only 14 grains; and those under the obscured yellow appeared rather to have gained weight. The increase in weight in these instances must be attributed, as in the case of the wheat, to the absorption of water, and it seems to be in almost reverse ratio to the healthiness of the plant; for those under the red, which had the best appearance at first, showed by far the smallest increase in weight; and those under the blue, which were afterwards better looking, had not increased greatly. ; In the comparative experiment made without any glass shade, one pea began to germinate on May 238d; this was shortly fol- lowed by two others, but only one of the three grew to any size. When measured on June 6th, its root was found to be only 0°75 inch long; its stalk had attained a length of 4°5 inches; its leaflets were deep green, appearing as healthy as, if not healthier than, any under the glass shades, and when removed from all moisture for eighteen hours, it weighed 5:5 grains, showing an increase of 2°7 grains on its original weight. On examining these results we are led to draw the following conclusions, as far as peas are concerned, growing under the conditions of the experiment. The cutting off of the chemical rays favors the first germination of the seed, and this appears to be the principal, if not the only advantage of the darkness ob- _ tained by burying the seeds in the soil. The development of roots also requires the absence of the chemical ray, yet it does not go on to the greatest extent when all the solar influences are excluded, but is favored rather than otherwise by heat and lumin- osity. The first development of the plume also proceeds best under the same circumstances; yet these are not the conditions which produce a healthy plant: if all the solar radiations be withdrawn, whether entirely or only to a great extent, the plants absorb much water and grow very tall, without developing secondary branches or many leaves. ‘T'he whole force of these radiations, on the contrary, prevents or greatly impedes the growth of these plants under the circumstances of the experi- ment. As peas grow commonly in the full sunshine, it would be interesting to observe whether the negative result obtained arose from the absence of soil about the roots, from excessive moisture, or from some other cause. The experiment, however, affords us no data for determining this question. The chemical force is the most antagonistic to the growth of the pea, and luminosity also militates against it: the heating rays are favora- ble; but let the plant be fairly established, and those radiations which are comparatively speaking devoid of light, but replete 62 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. with chemical power, are the most suited to the production of a healthy growth. The influences which facilitate rapid growth are diametrically opposed to healthy development. It should be borne in mind, however, that these observations relate only to a very early stage of the plant, and teach us nothing respecting the full-grown pea, or the evolution of the flower or fructification. If we compare the effect of the various solar radiations upon the germination of wheat with the effect produced upon that of peas, we are struck with the great diversity between them. This was particularly apparent during the progress of the experiment. The colorless and the red glasses happened to stand side by side on the table, and it was curious to notice under the former glass a tall and vigorous crop of corn-plants with a mere matting of stunted roots from the peas, while under the other a thick crop of green spreading plants arose from the germinating peas, but the wheat-plants were few, straggling, and unhealthy in appear- ance. When, however, we come to look more closely into the phenomena, we see certain points of resemblance. In both cases the cutting off of the chemical ray facilitates in a marked manner the process of germination, and that both in reference to the protrusion of the radicles and the evolution of the plume. The unnaturally tall growth of the stem, and the poor develop- ment of leaves in darkness, more or less complete, 1s also common to both these specimens of the monocotyledonous and dicotyle- donous plant. In both cases too, the yellow ray exerted a re- pellant influence upon the roots, giving the wheat a downward and the pea roots a lateral impulse. The object of employing a partially obscured yellow glass in these experiments, was to decide if possible the question which has been asked, Does yellow light stop germination by some specific action or merely by the excess of light? Contrary to the experience of some others, who, I believe, have experimented on seeds covered with soil, and on other plants than those em- ployed by me, the yellow light did not interfere at all with germ- ination, in the experiments just described. In the case of both plants, indeed, it decidedly facilitated the early development of both the root and the plume. That the yellow ray, however, has a specific action of its own, is proved by the most cursory glance at the facts already recorded; the yellow and the obscured yellow give quite different results from those of any of the other lasses. The diversity between the effect of the same qualities of light upon the growth of the wheat and the pea, leads us to look with suspicion on any generalisations affecting other plants which may be drawn from the observed influence of light upon one particular plant, especially, of course, when they are of different orders. ‘This will account for some of the diversity in the state- ments made by previous experimenters in these fields. Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 63 The subject may be, however, further elucidated by referring to some of these. Dr. Draper, in his elaborate investigation of the forces which exert a controlling influence on the growth of plants, records a series of experiments on peas. He placed them just after they begun to grow in blue, red, and yellow light, and also in the dark, and in the open air. His observations were confined to the third and fourteenth days. At the former period he found that under the red the plant had attained 4°5 times its original size, and had produced double the number of leaves; under the blue, three times its original height, with also double the number of leaves. In the dark there was about the same increase of altitude, while in the open air only twice the original height had been attained, and there were no fresh leaves; and under the yellow light, a still smaller advance had been made. On the fourteenth day he found all his pea-plants green, though varying a little in the character of the color, except those which had been placed in the dark, which were of a pale whitish yellow, the plants vigorous, thirteen times their original height, but with no fresh leaves. On the whole, then, as far as Dr. Draper's ex- periment goes, it is in accordance with my results. M. Senebier describes an experiment performed by him on lettuce-seeds sown in little cups and placed respectively in the open air in full hght of day, in darkness, and under glass vessels filled with colorless, yellow, red, and violet fluids. ‘‘ Observing then the effects produced by the different portions of light which were thus permitted to act, he found that the plants illuminated by the yellow rays grew most rapidly in height; next, those in the violet rays; afterwards those in the red rays. The plants which grew in light transmitted through water were still smaller and approached in size to those which flourished in the open air, while those in perfect darkness attained the greatest height of all. These last plants perished on the eighth day, and those in the yellow light on the ninth day, while all the others continued to vegetate. At the end of about five weeks, the plants growing under the red vessel were 4 inches and 9 lines in height; under the violet vessel 3 inches and 8 lines; under the water vessel 2 inches and 10 lines, and 1 inch and 8 lines in the open air. With respect to the general appearance of the plants, the leaves of those which grew in red light were smaller and less smooth than those of the plants in violet light, or than the leaves of the plants confined under water, or than the leaves of those which grew in the open air. As to color, the leaves exposed to yellow light were at first green and afterwards became yellow; those in red light appeared green and preserved a tinge of that color; those in violet light were quite green and their color aug- mented with their age; while those raised in obscurity possessed no verdure at all.” These experiments were repeated on French 64 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. beans with nearly similar results, but beyond the observation that “‘in proportion as the plants grew in height, in different kinds of light, the number and size of their leaves diminished,” his attention appears to have been directed only to the question of color.* : Besides the experiments already detailed in this Report, and those on wheat and Malope trifida described in my former one, I have a few other observations on the effect of various qualities of light on the growth of plants from the seed, which it may be worth while briefly to record. ‘They were made on the Collunsia bicolor of the florists, and Mignonette. Seeds of the Collinsia were sown in garden mould in glasses, and placed under the colorless, blue, yellow, red, and darkened shades, on a table before a window which had a northwest aspect. T'he perforated boards were used for supporting the glass covers. The experiment was commenced on the 6th of July in last year. On the 9th it was found that germination had taken place under each glass except the yellow, where no plant grew until the 14th. Under the colorless glass, the plants grew and flourished till the beginning of August, when they all faded and died. Under the blue and red glasses they grew well for a while, but began to droop by the 26th of July. Those under the darkened glass ex- isted rather longer, but they were tall and scraggy, and the leaves did not fairly open. Only three plants germinated under the yellow shade; they were all unhealthy and died before the 26th. On August 4th, seeds were sown afresh under each glass. Much the same order of growth was observed. On October 12th, a hundred seeds of Mignonette were sown in each of seven glasses filled with garden mould. They were placed about a third of an inch below the surface. Six of the glasses were covered respectively with the colorless, blue, red, yellow, obscured colorless, and obscured yellow shades, and the seventh was placed in a dark closet. It should be observed that the closet was rather warmer than the room. The Mignonette seeds began first to germinate in the dark, then under the blue; then, after the lapse of a few days, they appeared under the red, and colorless, and the obscured colorless glasses. ‘The yellow ray long retarded, and very nearly prevented their germination. Those in the dark were tall, thin, and yellow; they all died about November 1st; the others soon followed, excepting one plant under the colorless glass, which was found still alive with four green leaves on December 10th. The investigations of many experimenters have shown that oxygen is necessary in the germination of seeds. The explana- tion given is that that element is required for instituting the action that converts the fecula of the cotyledon into sugar. It * From Ellis’s “ Farther Inquiries,” &c. Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. 65 is unquestionable, that in the majority of cases, plants after the first stage of their growth require a certain supply of carbonic acid, by the decomposition of which they obtain carbon, setting free oxygen. My brother and I have shown that plants will exist well for a considerable time in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, for instance in nitrogen, hydrogen, coal-gas, or carbonic oxyd. In order to see the eftects of all these atmospheric condi- tions on the germination of wheat and peas, the following experi- ments were made during the latter part of May and the beginning of June. Six wheat-seeds and six peas were placed on folds of linen floating on mercury, and covered with a colorless glass jar having a capacity of about 20 cubic inches. The linen preserved the seeds from the mercury, and was kept wet by the introduction of asmall quantity of water. The jar was full of atmospheric air, and was placed on the table before the window having a SH aspect. After a couple of days or so the peas germinated, and shortly afterwards the wheat. They grew for about a week, and retained a healthy appearance much longer. The experiment was twice performed with similar results, and showed that the arrangement was applicable to the proposed experiments. A precisely similar arrangement was made in a jar containing 29 cubic inches of hydrogen gas, and having in it a tube con- taining pyrogallate of potash, so as to absorb any trace of oxygen which might be accidentally present in the gas, or might be evolved from the seeds themselves. In four days the swollen | peas had begun to burst. They put forth short radicles, but no plume, and in about a week afterwards they were all decaying. The wheat showed no appearance whatever of germination. This experiment was twice performed with the same result. Another such arrangement was made in a jar filled with car- bonic acid. Not the slightest appearance was indicated by either the wheat or the peas. They decayed, becoming soft and swollen, and emitted a most offensive smell on the removal of the jar. The same was done in a jar filled with common air, and con- taining a solution of caustic potash in a small capsule, so as to remove any carbonic acid which might be given off by the seeds. In about three days both the wheat and the peas had begun to burst ; four out of the six of each continued to grow for about six days, and remained healthy afterwards. The removal of the carbonic acid, then, did not affect the germination. I subse- quently found that in this experiment I had almost exactly repeated one of Mr. Ellis’s in his ‘Inquiry into the changes pro- duced on atmospheric air by the germination of seeds,’ &c. He employed peas, and satisfied himself that all the oxygen in the jar had been absorbed by the germinating plants. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 66 Influence of Solar Radiation on Plants. The effect of oxygen on the germination of wheat and peas under the influence of the difterent solar radiations was also tried. The small colored glasses, having a capacity of 172 to 177 cubic inches, were employed, and the experiments were con- ducted like those under the colored shades which have been already detailed. ‘The seeds were placed on the bricks on May 2nd. On the 8th, both the wheat and the peas had burst under the colorless glass, but they soon became mouldy, and before the end of the month they were quite dead. The seeds under the yellow glass ran much the same course; but those under the blue glass, though they did not burst till the 11th, grew well, and by the 26th two of the wheat plants had attained a height of 4 or 5 inches. The experiment was discontinued on June 5th. The plants were removed from the brick for desiccation, and on the following day the five of the wheat which had germinated were found to weigh 8 grains, giving an average of 1°6 grain for each, or an increase of 0-9 grain on the original weight. All the six peas had germinated and weighed 26 grains, giving an average of 4:3 grs. for each, or an increase of 1°6 grain on the original weight. Thus far I have proceeded in the investigation. Many inter- esting inquiries naturally suggest themselves; some have been already alluded to, for instance, the influence of light upon the colors of flowers; the amount of exclusion of light effected by the soil; the different condition of solar influences required by wheat or by peas at later periods of their growth; and the ex- tension of the observations to other seeds. Other questions might be raised, such as,—What character of light promotes best the absorption of oxygen in germination? At what period in the growth of a plant does oxygen become unnecessary? Is oxygen requisite for the full development of a bulbous-rooted plant? Does carbonic acid act specifically in the prevention of germina- tion, or merely by the exclusion of oxygen? How far does the rapid development of a plant in an early stage interfere with its healthy growth at a later period? } Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 67 Art. [X.—Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a Railroad from the Missis- sippt River to the Pacific Ocean; made under the direction of the Hon. JEFFERSON Davis, Secretary of War.* UNDER the auspices of the Secretary of War, the reports of the explorations made with reference to a route for the Pacific railroad, are in progress of publication in quarto volumes, ex- cellent in style and full in their illustrations. The results of these surveys are exceedingly varied and important. The physical features and climate of the vast region beyond the Mis- SiSsippi Were examined, animals, plants, and rocks collected, and important contributions thus made to science, while at the same time the special object of the surveys appears to have been pur- sued with vigor and as much care as the limited time of the sur- veys admitted. The volume just issued contains the Report of the Secretary of War; an Examination of the Reports of the sev- eral routes explored; railway memoranda; and the Report of Governor I. I. Stevens. The further narrative of the explora- tion, accompanied by views illustrating the features of the coun- try, the natural history and other scientific reports, with illus- trations, will appear in another volume. : The report of the Secretary of War presents a general re- view of the whole subject, and is drawn up with clearness and apparent justice to each of the proposed routes. ‘The routes ex- amined were five in number:—the most northern or Missouri river route, near the 47th and 49th parallels of north latitude, sur- veyed under Governor Stevens; the next, or Platte river route, near the 41st and 42nd parallels, examined by Col. Fremont and Capt. Stanisbury, east of the Rocky Mts., and by Lieut. E. G. Beckwith, on the west, from Fort Bridger in 110° W. to Fort Reading on the Sacramento; the third, or Arkansas river route, near the 38th and 39th parallels, explored by Capt. Gunnison’s party to the Un-kuk-oo-ap mountains, in longitude 112°, on the Sevier river, where he died; the fourth, or Canadian river route, near the 35th parallel, surveyed under the direction of Lieut. A. W. Whipple; the fifth, near the 31st and 32nd parallels, its _ different parts under the direction of Capt. Pope, Lieut. Parke, Major Emory, and Lieut. Williamson. We make the following extracts from the Report of the Sec- retary of War. * Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi river to the Pacific Ocean; made under the direction of the Hon. Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, in 1853-4, ac- cording to acts of Congress of March 3, 1853, May 31, 1854, and August 5, 1854. Volume J. 652 pages 4to, with Maps and Tables. 68 Lzplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. The western portion of the continent of North America, irre- spective of the mountains, is traversed from north to south by a broad, elevated swell or plateau of land, which occupies the greater portion of the whole space between the Mississippi river and the Pacific ocean. The crest of this plateau, or the water- shed of the country, is nearly midway between the Pacific coast and the Mississippi. It may be represented on the map by an undulating line traced between the headwaters of the streams which flow eastward and those which flow westward. It divides the whole area between the Mississippi and the Pacific into two nearly equal portions—that on the east being somewhat the larger. ‘This crest of the water-Shed has its greatest elevation in Mexico; and thence declines to its lowest point about the latitude of 32°, where it has a height of about 5,200 feet, be- tween the waters of the Rio Grande and those of the San Pedro, a tributary of the Gila. From this parallel it increases in alti- tude northward, and reaches its maximum near the 38th parallel, where itis about 10,000 feet high. Thence it declines as we pass northward; and, in latitude 42° 24’, it has an elevation of, say, 7,490 feet; and in the latitude of about 47° it is reported to be at least 1,450 feet lower. The heights here given are those of the lowest passes over the crest or water-shed of the great plateau of the country, and not those of the mountain peaks and ridges which have their base upon it, and rise, in some cases, to the height of 17,000 feet into the region of perpetual snow. The slope of the plateau on the east and south, towards the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico, is comparatively gentle, and in the northern part of Texas, that known by the name of the Llano Hstacado, or Staked Plain, is by steps. It is traversed by the Missouri, the Platte, the Arkansas, and other large rivers, which rise among the mountains near the crest, and flow east- ward and southward in channels sunk beneath the general sur- face-level of the plains. The crest of the mountains, and nearly the entire distance thence to the Pacific, is occupied by high plains or basins, dif- fering from each other in elevation from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and by mountain peaks and ridges, varying in direction to almost every point of the compass, though they have a general course north and south. Many of these mountains, including those that bound this system, have obtained the name of chains, and a short classification of them will now be attempted, although it is to be premised that our knowledge of them is most imperfect, and the classification now made, future explorations will probably show to be erroneous. ‘The only proper classification must be made by the geologist, after a thorough exploration for this purpose, which it will require a long period to accomplish. Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 69 These mountains may be considered as constituting three great systems, extending generally throughout our possessions in a north and south direction; and although this arrangement may not be the best or most accurate, yet it will enable us to take a comprehensive view of the whole as regards the construc- tion of a railroad, since any direct line that can be traced from the Mississippi to the Pacific, except near the 48th and 382d parallels, will encounter each of these three systems in some oint. Calling the most eastern system No. 1, we find a portion of it, crossing the Rio Grande, and entering Texas at the Great Cafion. Its extension south into Mexico forms the east front of the Sierra Madre. Running northward, this system includes all the moun- tains on either side of the Rio Grande, enclosing its valley and the Salinas Basin. Those on the east form the divide between the Pecos and Salinas Basin, and between the Rio Grande and Canadian; on the west they divide the waters of the Rio Grande from those that flow to the Gulf of California. Those on the east are sometimes called the Rocky mountains, sometimes the Sierra Madre; and this last name is sometimes applied to those on the west. There seems to be a necessity for considering the mountains on both sides of the Rio Grande as one system. These may be said to unite near the headwaters of the Rio Grande and Arkansas, and here the mountains have their great- est development. The Sierra de la Plata extends to the south- west, the Elk mountains to the west, and the various chains _ forming the Park mountains to the north. The Park moun- tains, in latitude 41° 30’, sink into the plateau, forming the re- gion of the South Pass; and the only continuation we have of this system is in the Black Hills, which continue to the north, with diminished elevation, till, in latitude 46° 15’, they are merged into the coteau through which the Upper Missouri makes its passage. Among the mountains included in this system are the Sierra Madre, a portion of what is called the Rocky mountains, the Diabolo mountains, the Guadalupe mountains, Hueco mountains, Organ mountains, Sandia mountains, Santa Fe mountains, Sierra Blanca, Sierra Mojada, Sierra San Juan, Sierra de Ja Plata, Elk Fae yom Park mountains, Medicine Bow mountains, and Black ills. System No. 1 is thus but partially gorged by the Rio Grande, whose passage of the Great Cafion is wholly impracticable for any method of communication; that of Hl Paso is practicable. It is completely cut through by the North Platte and Sweet Water, forming a practicable route; and is turned by the Upper Missouri. 70 Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. Low mountains or hills are known to exist between the Black — Hills and the Wind River chain, about the headwaters of the Yellowstone and Missouri; but this region is too little known to be treated of with confidence, and when explored may have a decided effect in modifying this classification. System No. 2.—If, from the Great Northern Bend of the Mis- sourl, we travel west for 450 miles, we come again upon what are called the Rocky mountains; and still further west lies the Coeur d’Alene, or Bitter Root range, the two enclosing the Bitter Root or St. Mary’s valley; and both are considered as forming a part of this system. Following it to the south, it includes the Wind River chain, the Bear mountains, the Uinta mountains, and the Wahsatch, which last continue as far south as it has been explored, probably forming the divide between the Great Basin and the Colorado, till the junction of the latter with the Gila. System No. 3.—From the junction of the Gila and the Colo- rado, we find continuous mountains running to the northwest, and terminating at Point Conception, on the Pacific. On the south they are joined by the mountains forming the Peninsula of California, the junction being at the San Gorgonio Pass, in latitude 33° 45’. On the north, two chains leave this range in latitude 35°. One, called the Coast range and Coast mountains, lies to the west of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, the waters of which break through them at the Bay of San Francisco. The other, called the Sierra Nevada, lies to the east of these valleys. A great depression, forming a plateau, is known to exist in the Sierra Nevada in latitude 40° 30’, and another in latitude 42° 45’, near Lake Abert. This chain may, perhaps, be considered as terminating at or in these plateaus, or to find its continuation in the Cascade or Coast range, which extend into the British possessions, being broken through by the Columbia and partly by the Klamath rivers. The Blue mountains, to the south of the Columbia, represented as having a general northeast direction, may be considered, along with the mountains mentioned since leaving the Colorado, as forming system No. 3. The Humboldt River chain, running north and south, (where crossed,) and separating the waters of the Humboldt or Mary’s river from those of the Great Salt Lake Basin, is a marked fea- ture; but as to its connexion, north or south, with other ranges, nothing is certain. | There seem good reasons for believing that the east and west ranges, represented as separating the Columbia River basin from the Great Basin, as well as the range represented as extending west from the Vegas of Santa Clara, are only apparently such, ie) ee Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 71 the deception arising from the overlapping of the side spurs to chains, the general direction of which is north and south. The “triangular space” lying between the Rio Grande, Gila, and Colorado, is everywhere, so far as known, exceedingly mountainous; the ranges, such as the Mogollon and San Fran- cisco mountains, having a general northwest direction. Too broad an interval exists between the explorations of Lieutenant Whipple and those of Captain Gunnison, to enable us to speak with certainty of their relation to the systems already alluded to. In portions of the mountain region, the waters find no outlet to the sea, but drain into lakes and ponds, or sinks, carrying with them all the impurities of the basins to which they belong, and are there uniformly brackish or very salt. Prominent ex- amples of this are the Salinas Basin, of New Mexico, and the Great Salt Lake Basin in Utah. From most portions of this interior mountain belt, the waters have been able to force their barriers and escape to the ocean. The valleys thus drained are, those of the southern tributaries of the Upper Missouri, that of the North Fork of the Platte, and its tributary the Sweet Water, between the first and second systems; that of the Upper Rio Grande del Norte, in the first system; that of the Great Colorado of the West and its tributa- ries, between the first and second systems; those of the waters of the Bay of San Francisco and of the Klamath river, in the third system; and that of the Columbia river and its tributaries, between the second and third systems. Some of these streams, - as well as others in the enclosed basins, have, in places, worn for themselves through the solid rock, the most stupendous chasms or cafions, often 2,000 feet in vertical height, many of which it is impossible to follow or to cross. The position of this belt of mountain region, stretching from north to south, gives rise to a peculiarity of climate and soil. Fertility depends principally upon the degree of temperature and amount of moisture, both of which are much affected by in- crease of elevation; and the latter also depends on the direction of the wind. ‘The upper or return current of the trade-wind, flowing backward towards the northeast, gives a prevalence of westerly winds in the north temperate zone, which tends to spread the moisture from the Pacific over the western portion of our continent. These winds, however, ascending the western slope of the mountain ridges, are deprived of their moisture by the diminished temperature of the increased elevation; and hence it is that the plains and valleys on the eastern side of the ridges are generally parched and barren, and that the mountain System, as a whole, presenting, as it were, a screen against the moisture with which the winds from the west come laden, has for its eastern margin a sterile belt, which probably extends 72 zplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. along the whole range, with a width varying from 250 to 300 and 400 miles. : From the foregoing sketch it will be perceived that the lines of exploration must traverse three different divisions or regions of country lying parallel to each other, and extending north and south through the whole of the western possessions of the Uni- ted States. The first is that of the country, between the Missis- sippi and the eastern edge of the sterile belt, having a varying width of from 500 to 600 miles. The second is the sterile re- gion, varying in width from 200 to 400 miles; and the third, the mountain region, having a breadth of from 500 to 900 miles. Explorations show that the surface of the first division, with few exceptions, rises in gentle slopes from the Mississippi to its western boundary, at the rate of about six feet to the mile, and that it offers no material obstacle to the construction of a rail- road. It is, therefore, west of this that the difficulties are to be overcome. The concurring testimony of reliable observers had indicated that the second division, or that called the sterile region, was so inferior in vegetation and character of soil, and so deficient in moisture, that it had received, and probably deserved, the name of the desert. This opinion is confirmed by the results of the recent explorations, which prove that the soil of the greater part of this region is, from its constituent parts, necessarily sterile; and that of the remaining part, although well constituted for fertility, is, from the absence of rains at certain seasons, except where capable of irrigation, as uncultivable and unproductive as the other. This general character of extreme sterility likewise belongs to the country embraced in the mountain region. From the west- ern slopes of the Rocky mountains to the 112th meridian, or the western limit of the basin of the Colorado, the soil generally is of the same formation as that lying east of that mountain crest, mixed, in the latitudes of 35° and 82°, with igneous rocks; and the region being one of great aridity, especially in the summer, the areas of cultivated land are limited. The western slopes of the highest mountain chains and spurs within this region being of a constitution favorable to fertility, and receiving much larger depositions of rain than the plains, have frequently in their small valleys a luxuriant growth of grasses, which sometimes clothes the mountain-sides; and where the wash is deposited along a mountain valley or river-bottom the soil is fertile, and can be cultivated, if the elevations are not too great, and the means of irrigation are available. Such mountain-valleys and river-bot- toms exist upon all the routes, and the difference in the areas found in the different latitudes is not sufficiently great to be of any considerable weight in determining the question of choice of Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 78 route. It is probable that all the routes are nearly on an equal- ity in this respect. The cultivable valleys of the Rocky mountain district near the route of the 47th parallel do not probably exceed an area of 1,000 square miles, though there are extensive tracts of fine grazing lands. In this latitude the great sterile basaltic plain of the Columbia, and the barren table-lands, spurs, and mountain masses of the Cascade range, principally occupy the space be- tween the Coeur d’Alene mountains and the main chain of the Cascade system. In this area, where the rocks are principally of igneous origin, there are likewise occasional valleys of culti- vable soil. The western slopes of the Cascade mountains de- scend to the borders of Puget sound. On the routes of the 41st and 38th parallels, in the region under consideration, the only large body of soil capable of pro- ductive cultivation, by the construction of suitable works for Irrigation, is that of the basin of the Great Salt Lake, estimated to be 1,108 square miles in extent, about one-tenth part of which, being susceptible of cultivation without the construction of irrigating canals, is now cultivated by the Mormons. Here also are extensive grazing lands. The great elevated plain of the Rocky mountains in latitudes 41° and 42°, and that of latitude 88°, called the San Luis valley, are covered with wild sage, the narrow border of grass found upon the streams being the chief and almost the only production capable of supporting animal life. The slopes of the mountains bounding them are covered with grass. The plains of the Great Basin, whose greatest width (500 miles) is in latitude 41°, are, with the exception heretofore stated, entirely sterile, and either bare or imperfectly covered with a scattered growth of wild sage. Where a stream or lake is found in this desolate region, its immediate borders generally support a narrow belt of grass and willows; the former being also found on the mountain slopes, where occasionally a scat- tered growth of stunted cedars is likewise seen. Water is found on the mountain side. The predominating rocks, from the Wah- satch mountains to the Sierra Nevada, are of igneous origin. In the southern portion of the Basin the granitic rocks are more abundant than the volcanic. ¥ On the routes of the parallels of 85° and 82° the valleys of the Pecos, Rio Grande, Gila, and Colorado of the West, contain the largest areas of fertile soil capable of irrigation and cultiva- tion. That in New Mexico is estimated at 700 square miles, ex- clusive of the regions occupied by Indians, of which 200 square miles are now under cultivation. Here the grazing land is of very great extent, the table-lands, as well as the mountain sides, being covered with grass. The valley of the Colorado of the SEEOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 6.—JULY, 1856. 10 74 Kzplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. West, between its mouth and the 35th parallel, contains 1,600 square miles of fertile soil, which can be irrigated from the river. The plains south of the Gila in its lower course, and that west of the Colorado, extending to the Coast range, called the Colorado desert, as well as the contiguous portion of the Great Basin are bare and exceedingly sterile in their aspect, and closely resemble each other. The soil of the Colorado desert, and much of this as well as other parts of the Great Basin, is however, fa- vorably constituted for fertility, but the absence of the essential, quickening element, water, leaves them utterly unproductive. West of the Coast, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade mountains the country is better watered than that just considered; and the soil being mostly well constituted for fertility, is productive in pro- portion to the yearly amount of precipitation and the means of irrigation, i * a NOTES ON THE SEVERAL ROUTES. Route near the forty-seventh and forty-ninth parallels of north latitude.—The general direction of the Missouri from the Rocky mountains to the Great Bend, in latitude 48° 30’, is from west to east, and thence to latitude 43° 30’ southeast. The point where the direction changes is reached from St. Paul, on the Missis- sippi, by a line passing up on the east side of that river to Little Falls, 109 miles, and there crossing it; thence gaining the divide between the waters of Hudson’s Bay and those of the Missouri, keeping on this divide, and approaching, in longitude 103°, within a few miles of the 49th parallel; then passing southerly, between the 104th and 105th meridians, and entering the valley of the Missouri river. The route then follows this valley to the mouth of Milk river. The ground near the Missouri here be- coming rough and broken, the route is obliged to leave it and follow the valley of Milk river 187 miles; then entering the prairies, which near the mountains are more favorable for loca- tion than near the Missouri river, it continues in a line nearly arallel to the river, across its tributaries, the Marias, Teton, and un rivers, and enters either Clark’s or Cadotte’s Pass, [near latitude 47°]. a ‘a “a & 3 The sumnut ridge of Clark’s Pass has an elevation of 6,323 feet, and requires a tunnel 24 miles long, at an elevation of 5,300 feet. Its connexion with the main line of survey along the val- ley of the Blackfoot river was not made, though “believed” practicable, with grades of fifty feet per mile. The interval un- examined is 44 miles long. This pass has been adopted by Sar Stevens in the railroad estimate, and is probably prac- ticable. ce, The approach to the other pass (Cadotte’s) is difficult, owing to the numerous deep ravines of the tributaries of a branch of Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 75 Dearborn river, which the road must cross. The summit of the pass has an elevation of 6,044 feet; and requires a tunnel 44 miles long, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, with grades of approach of 60 feet, and of departure of 40 feet, per mile. A tunnel 44 or even 24 miles in length, in rock or part rock, at a depth below the summit of 1,000 feet, in a severely cold climate, 800 or 1,000 miles distant from a thickly inhabited district, is a work of vast difficulty; and the necessity of the construction of one of these two tunnels, in connexion with the character of the approach, and the difficult nature of the work required, continuing westward as far as the crossing of the Spo- kane river, in all a distance of 365 miles, is one of the most se- rious objections to the route. From either pass the route seeks the Blackfoot river, with the view of reaching Clark’s fork, which opens the only pass through the Bitter Root mountains, the practicability of which was de- termined. # i fe - * * Having reached Clark’s fork, the route [the best of the two proposed] continues along this river as far as Lake Pend d’Oreille, between rugged, rocky mountains, which at several points crowd upon the river. The valley of this river is heavily timbered, principally with pine, and, with the lake, it is subject to freshets fifteen feet in height. Leaving Lake Pend d’Oreille at its lower extremity, the route crosses to the Spokane without difficulty. At the Spokane river the continuous mountain re- gion and the forest terminate, and ‘“‘all great difficulties of loca- tion upon the route cease.” The earth-excavation and embank- ment throughout this section (from the east base of the Rocky mountains to the Spokane river, 365 miles) will be large in amount, and expensive; there will be frequent rock-excavation, and the bulk of the rock-excavation in the entire route will be in this section. It is evident that the difficulties of construction will be great, and the cost excessive. i “3 * Leaving the Spokane, the route enters the Great Plain of the Columbia, a table-land stretching from the Coeur d’Alene to the Cascade mountains, a distance of 200 miles. Its central and western portions are of trap formation, and are described on the map as sandy, rocky, and sterile. Its summit, 800 feet above the Spokane river, is readily attained, the treeless plain is crossed in a distance of 110 miles, and a suitable point for crossing the Columbia river, 400 or 450 yards wide, reached, 140 miles dis- tant from the Spokane. This point is about equally distant from the navigable waters of the Pacific in Puget sound and in the Columbia river. The whole intermediate space is occupied by the Cascade mountains, with their secondary chains, spurs, and high, broken table-lands, through which there are but two passes reported practicable for a railroad—that of the Columbia 76 Kzplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. river and that of the Yakima, sometimes erroneously called the Snoqualme. The Yakima Pass gives the most direct route to Puget sound, the distance by it beg 150 or 160 miles shorter than by the Columbia River Pass. It requires a tunnel through rock, (sili- ceous conglomerate,) either 4,000 yards long, 3,000 feet above the sea, or a tunnel 11,840 yards long, 2,400 feet above the sea. The reconnoissance did not extend westward from the summit more than three miles. The evidence respecting the amount of snow found on the summit of the pass at the close of winter, makes it probable that it is then 20 feet deep there. This ques- tion should be satisfactorily settled, and the reconnoissance completed, before the practicability of the pass. can be consid- ered established. In the opinion of the officer making the re- connoissance—Captain McClellan, Corps of Engineers—the pass is barely practicable, and only at a great cost of time, labor, and money. Under every favorable condition of position the con- struction of either of the proposed tunnels would be seriously objectionable; but where the position itself is so unfavorable, the final advantages should be very great to determine the selec- tion of this route. The information now possessed is sufficient to decide against this route. The route by the pass of the Columbia follows that river from the Great Plain, beimg generally located, as far as the Dalles, in bottom-lands which present no difficulties. From the Dalles to near Vancouver, 90 miles, the rocky bluffs close upon the river, and the work required will be similar to that of the Hudson River railroad along the mountain region. In the opinion of Mr. Lander, “the high floods to which the Columbia river is subject, are serious obstacles to obtaining the best location for cheap construction offered by its valley.” In 1854, the rise of the river during the flood was 10 feet above spring level, and 17 feet above summer level. The Columbia river is navigable for sea-going vessels to Van- couver, the point now reached; but the unfavorable character of the entrance to that river, and the great superiority of the ports on Puget sound, seemed to render it expedient to adopt some one of the latter as the Pacific terminus of this route. Continuing down the Columbia, therefore, through bottom-lands, to the mouth of the Cowlitz, the route enters the wide and com- paratively flat and wooded valley of that river, ascends it, and, crossing over the wooded and prairie plains, which, “though not fully explored, are sufficiently well known to insure the unusually favorable character of the country for the construction of a rail- way, reaches Seattle, the best port on the east side of Puget sound, r * * The information upon the character of the soil upon the route does not admit of satisfactory conclusions to be detluced. It is Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 77 sufficient, however, to show that in this latitude, as in that of the Arkansas, the uncultivable region begins about the 99th meridian. Immediately under the Rocky mountains the soil improves, probably from the mountain wash. The tertiary and cretaceous formations extend, in these latitudes, from about the 97th meridian to the eastern base of the Rocky mountains, and, under the meteorological conditions found in this space, are un- suitable for agricultural purposes. There are some very lim ited exceptions to this general character in portions of river bottoms. The country west of the Rocky mountains to the Pacific slopes may likewise be described as one of general sterility. The east- ern portion of the Great Plain of the Columbia is represented to be grassed; its middle and western parts almost entirely sandy, rocky, and sterile. The mountain masses, spurs, and table-lands of the Cascade chain, east of the main crest, are sterile. There are exceptions to this general sterility in the mountain valleys, where the soilis better constituted for fertility, and the rains more abundant; but, although portions of these are suitable for agricultural purposes, they are better adapted to grazing. The sum of the areas of cultivable soil in the Rocky mountain region does not exceed, if it equals, 1,000 square miles. West of the Cascade mountains, there are rich river-bottoms, clay formations that are arable, and prairies offering good grazing. The principal favorable charateristics of this route are, its low profile, low grades, and the low elevation of the mountain passes, and its connexion with the Missouri and Columbia rivers. The reported sum of the ascents and descents is the least of all the routes; this proportion may, however, be changed when the minor undulations are measured. The principal unfavorable features are, in construction, the tunnel required on the Rocky mountains, and the difficulty and expense of construction from the eastern approach of the Rocky mountains to the Spokane river, and expense of the construction along the Columbia river, from the Dalles to near Vancouver. ‘These, when considered carefully, are serious objections to the route, not only in the money, but the time, they will consume. In thickly populated countries their construction would be difficult and costly; situ- ated as they are—the Rocky mountain region especially—the difficulties, cost, and time required, are greatly increased. _ The severely cold character of the climate throughout the whole route, except the portion west of the Cascade mountains, is one of its unfavorable features; and, for national considera- tions, its proximity to the dominions of a powerful foreign sov- ereignty must be a serious objection to it as a military road. Its cost has been estimated by Governor Stevens, by the Co- lumbia River valley and the Cowlitz, at $117,121,000; the cost 78 Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. of work at eastern prices having had 25-per cent added to it from the Bois des Sioux to the Rocky mountains, and 40 per cent thence to the Pacific. It has been thought safer to add 100 per cent to the cost at eastern prices from the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains to the Pacific. This would swell the esti- mate to $150,871,000. Should Governor Stevens have included a full equipment in his estimate, $10,000,000 should be subtracted from this sum to bring the estimate in accordance with those of the other routes, and the cost then becomes $140,871,000. The length of the route from St. Paul to Vancouver is 1,864 miles. The sum of ascents and descents, as far as reported, is 18,100 feet, which will be equivalent, in the cost of working the road, to an increased horizontal distance of 348 miles: this added to the length of the line of location, gives for equated length 2,207 miles. ' From St. Paul to Seattle, by the Columbia route, is 2,025 miles, which the sum of ascents and descents increases to an equated distance of 2,887 miles. ig e i Route near the forty-first and forty-second parallels of north lati- tude-—The route may commence on the Missouri, either at Fort Leavenworth, about 245 miles from the Mississippi at St. Louis, or at Council Bluffs, about 267 miles from the Mississippi at Rock Island, ascend the Platte and enter the eastern chain of the Rocky mountains (the Black Hills) by the North fork and its tributary, the Sweet Water. Another route, by the South fork and a tributary called Lodge Pole creek, has been suggested by Capt. Stansbury as shorter and less expensive; but the in- formation respecting it is not sufficiently full to make further mention of it necessary. From the Missouri river to the entrance of the Black Hills, 30 miles above Fort Laramie, 520 miles from Council Bluffs, and 755 miles from Fort Leavenworth, the route resembles others from the Mississippi to the Rocky mountains, and needs no spe- ~ cial mention. Its cost per mile will be about the same. The route west of this point crosses many lateral streams that have cut deep ravines into the soil, and leaves the Platte just below the Hot Spring Gap, above which it is walled in by cafi- ons. ‘To avoid these, the route crosses a range of hills 800 feet above the river, and descending to the Sweet Water, a branch of the Platte, follows that stream to its source, where the summit of the plateau of the South Pass (elevation 7,490 feet) is attained. The valley of the Sweet Water is generally rather open, but oc- casionally it cuts through mountain spurs, forming cafions. From the first gorge in the Black Hills to the summit of the pass, 291 miles, the work will be difficult and expensive, and in amount approaches that of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 79 From the South Pass, the route follows down Sandy creek, a tributary of Green river, to the crossing of the latter, and thence to Fort Bridger, (elevation 7,254 feet,) on Black’s fork, likewise a tributary of Green river. The amount of work.on this section would be considerably less than on the preceding. From Council Bluffs to Fort Bridger the distance is 942 miles; from Fort Leavenworth 1,072 miles. The route now ascends the divide between the waters of Green river and those of the Great Salt lake, by the valley of Black's fork, or of one of its tributaries, with grades of 69°56 and 40:3 feet per mile. The summit is a broad terrace at the foot of the Uinta mountains, and has an elevation of 8,378 feet. From this point the line descends over the undulating country separating the Uinta and Bear River mountains, crossing the head of Bear river, and, entering the valley of White Clay creek at its head, follows down that stream to its junction with Weber river. The Wahsatch mountains now intervene between this plateau country and the Great Salt lake, and the passage through them may be effected by following Weber river, or by ascending to near the sources of the Timpanogos; and descending that stream —both being affluents, directly or indirectly, of the Great Salt lake—the distances are about the same to their common point on that lake. eae * s ii Entering the valley of Great Salt lake from either the Weber or the Timpanogos cafion, there is no obstacle to the construction of a railway passing by the south end of the lake, and crossing the Jordan, 'Tuilla valley, and Spring or Lone Rock valley, to its west side. By the valley of the Timpanogos, the distance from near Fort Bridger to the south end of the Great Salt lake, on the western side of the valley of the Jordan, is 182°55 miles; the greatest grade required, 84 feet to the mile. The amount of work re- quired on this section, excepting that along the cajion, will not, in the opinion of Lieutenant Beckwith, be great. Froth the western shore of Great Salt lake to the valley of Humboldt river, the country consists alternately of mountains, in more or less isolated ridges, and of open level plains, rising gradually from the level of the lake on the east, to the base of the Humboldt mountains on the west; that is, from 4,200 feet to 6,000 feet above the sea. West of the Humboldt mountains the country is of the same character, the plains declining until, at the west shore of Mud lake, usually called the foot of the Sierra Nevada, the elevation is 4,100 feet. The mountains in this space of 500 miles, (by the route trav- elled 600 miles,) between the Great Salt lake and the foot of the Sierra Nevada, have a general north and south course. Occa- sionally cross-spurs close in the valleys to the north and south, 80 Ezplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. but more frequently this isolation is only apparent. The moun- tains are sharp, rocky, and inaccessible in many parts, but are low and easily passed in others. Their general elevation varies from 1,500 to 8,000 feet above the valleys, and but few of them _ retain snow upon their highest peaks during the summer. They are liberally supplied with springs and small streams, but the lat- ter seldom extend far into the plains. At the time of melting snows there are many small ponds and lakes, but at other sea- sons the waters are absorbed by the soil near the base of the mountains. Grass is found in abundance upon nearly every range, but timber is very scarce—a small scattered growth of cedar only being seen upon a few ranges. Hast of the Humboldt mountains the growth of cedars is more abundant, and the grass better, than to the west. The valleys rarely have a width east and west of more than five or ten miles, but often have a large extent north and south. They are irregular in form, frequently extending around the ends of mountains, or uniting to succeed- ing valleys by level passages. The greater part of the surface of these valleys is merely sprinkled by several varieties of som- bre artemisia, (wild sage,) presenting the aspect of a dreary waste. Though there are spots more thickly covered with this vegeta- tion, yet the soil is seldom half covered with it, even for a few acres, and is nowhere suitable for settlement and cultivation. Immediately west of Great Salt lake there is a plain of mud, clay, and sand, impregnated with salt, seventy miles in width from east to west by its longest line, and forty at a narrower ‘part further south, thirty miles of which must be piled for the passage of a railroad across it. A railroad may be carried over this series of valleys and around the mountain masses, at nearly the general level of the valleys. The route in this manner reaches the foot of the Humboldt mountains, a narrow but elevated ridge, containing much snow during most of the year, and crosses them by a pass nine miles long, about three of which are occupied by a narrow, rocky ra- vine, above which the road should be carried on the sloping spurs of the mountains on the western descent; elevation of summit 6,579 feet above the sea. At the time when passed, 21st May, snow covered the high peaks above it, and a few drifts extended into the ravines down to the level of its summit. The descent is now made to the open valley of Humboldt river, which is followed for about 190 miles. The steepest grade proposed in the pass of Humboldt mountain is 89 feet per mile for eight miles, but this can be reduced by gaining distance to any desirable extent. ; The Humboldt river, as described by Colonel Fremont, is formed by two streams rising in mountains west of the Great Salt lake. Its general direction is from east to west, coursing Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 81 among broken ranges of mountains; its length about three hundred miles. It is without affluents, and terminates near the foot ef the Sierra Nevada in a marshy lake. It has a moderate eurrent—is from two to six feet deep in the dry season, and probably not fordable anywhere below the junction of the two streams during the melting of the snows. ‘The valley varies in width from a few miles to twenty, and, excepting the immediate river-banks, is a dry, sandy plain, without grass, wood, or arable soil. Its own immediate valley (bottom) is a rich alluvium, cov- ered with blue grass, herds-grass, clover, and other nutritious grasses, and its course is marked through the plain by a line of willow. Of the three lines from the Humboldt river to the foot of the Sierra Nevada, the best is that by the Noble’s Pass road, as it avoids the principal range of mountains crossed on the line fol- lowed a few. miles south. The line followed crosses two ranges of the general character of the Basin mountains, and reaches the foot of the Madelin Pass of the Sierra Nevada [lat. 41°], on the west shore of Mud lake, in a distance of 119 miles, and at an elevation of 4,079 feet above the sea. In this latitude, the Sierra Nevada was found to be a plateau about 5,200 feet above the sea, 40 miles in width from east to west, enclosed at these limits by low mountains, the summits of the passes through which are 400 and 500 feet above the base. The plain is covered with irregular spurs, ridges, and isolated peaks, rising a few hundred feet, limiting it ina north and south direction sometimes to a space of a few hundred yards, and at others to that of ten miles. ‘These spurs, &c., on the eastern portion of the plateau, are sparsely covered with cedar; on the western, heavily covered with pine. There is no drainage from this plain, the waters of a few small streams and springs forming grassy ponds upon its surface. In its general features it is similar to the Great Basin, excepting that as more rain falls upon it, the vegetation is comparatively luxuriant. There are two routes by which this plain may be reached from the Great Basin, and the descent made to the Sacramento river. That by the Madelin Pass, the more northern, is most probably the better of the two, and is the only one necessary to be con- sidered, Leaving Mud lake, it ascends by the valley of Smoky ereek for three miles, through a narrow gorge (from 100 to 150 yards wide) in an outlying spur of the Sierra Nevada. After this, the route is over more open ground, varying, in degree, to the summit of the passage through the eastern ridge bounding the Sierra Nevada plateau. The pass is thus far of a very favorable character—the length of the ascent is 22°89 miles; SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 1] 82 Kxplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. the difference of elevation, 1,172 feet; the altitude of the sum- mit, 5,667 feet; and the steepest slope is 75 feet per mile. The plateau being gained, is crossed by a nearly level line to the low ridge bounding it on the west, the summit elevation of which, 5,736 feet, is attained by following a ravine valley. The descent to the Sacramento along one of its tributaries is now commenced, and is at first rapid. fs oe és The distance from Fort Bridger to Fort Reading by the line of Lieutenant Beckwith’s profile is 1,012 miles; from Fort Leay- enworth to Fort Bridger, 1,072 miles—making the whole dis- tance from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Reading, on the Sacra- mento, 2,084 miles, and to Benicia 2,264 miles. The distance from Council Bluffs to Benicia [on the Bay of San Francisco] by the above route is 2,134 miles. Using the line along which the route can be located in the Great Basin, about 108 miles shorter than that travelled, the dis- tances become, from Fort Bridger to Fort Reading, 909 miles; from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Reading, 1,980 miles; and to Benicia, 2,161 miles. The distance from Council Bluffs to Benicia becomes 2,031 miles. i 3 g o * The winter climate is known to be severe on the plains east of the Rocky mountains in this latitude. That it is more severe, and of long duration, upon the great table-land of the Rocky mountains, is to be inferred. Lieut. Beckwith found the sun had not yet begun to melt the snow upon the terrace divide on the western border of the plateau, and about 1,000 feet above it, when he crossed the former, on the 10th of April. The snow was here from twelve to sixteen inches deep, and had accumu- lated in deep drifts on the northeast slopes of the hills and ra- vines. Captain Stansbury found the Uinta mountains covered with snow for a considerable distance from their summits on the 19th of August. The quantity of snow that falls upon the great undulating plain between Fort Laramie and Fort Bridger is not exactly known. It is probable that no unusual difficulty may be apprehended from it on this plain, or on the terrace divide, where crossed by Lieut. Beckwith; but the fall of snow in the Wahsatch and other mountains is very much greater, and accu- mulates in their gorges, ravines, and cafions, to great depths. Apparently, Lieut. Beckwith does not apprehend unusual diffi- culties from this cause along the proposed railroad route in this region, or in that of the Madelin Pass. The supply of water upon the Rocky mountain plateau must be very limited at certain seasons of the year: the distances apart of these supplies are not given. Abundant supplies of water were found by Lieut. Beckwith on the mountains of the Great Basin. The season of the year when he crossed it—the spring—was the most favorable in this respect. Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 83 On this route, as on others, from the 98th or 99th meridian to the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, a distance of 1,400 miles, the soil is uncultivable, excepting the comparatively lim- ited area of the Mormon settlement, and an occasional river-bot- tom and mountain valley of small extent. West of the Black Hills the plains are covered with artemi- sia, rarely furnishing any grazing except along the water-courses —the mountains being generally clothed, to a greater or less extent, with grass. The barren aspect of the Great Basin has been already described. In that desolate region there are but few and very limited areas where the conditions of soil, water, and temperature requisite for cultivation, are found. The features of this route, favorable to the econonnical con- struction of a railroad, are apparent from the description of it which has just been given. Its unfavorable features may be briefly described: as the costly construction, for nearly three hundred miles along the Platte and Sweet Water, in ascending to the summit of the South Pass; in the cafion of the Timpano- gos; in the two cafions of the Sacramento, fourteen and nine miles in length; and in the very sinuous course of the river, for the space of ninety-six miles, through heavily timbered moun- tains rising precipitously from the stream—the cost of construct- ing arailroad along which cannot be properly estimated until minute surveys are made. Although the route passes over elevated regions, the sum of ascents and descents is the next least after that of the 47th par- allel, which is to be attributed to the table-land character of the mountain districts. It partakes of the character of the route near the 47th parallel, in the long and severe winters on the plains east of the Rocky mountains and westward to the Great Basin. The cost, as estimated in the office, from Council Bluffs to Benicia, a distance of 2,031 miles, is $116,095,000. The survey of the western portion of this route by Lieuten- ant Beckwith, has resulted in the discovery of a more direct and practicable route than was believed to exist from the Great Salt lake to the valley of the Sacramento. Since his report was made, a brief communication from Brevet Lieut. Col. Steptoe, commanding the troops in Utah, has announced the discovery of a still more direct route from Great Salt lake to San Francisco. The new portion of this route passes to the south of Humboldt or Mary’s river, and, entirely avoiding the difficulties experienced by travellers along that stream, proceeds to the valley of Carson river, being well supplied with water and grass. From Carson river it crosses the Sierra Nevada by the passes at the head of that river, and descends to the valley of the Sacramento, being practicable throughout for wagons. 84 zplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. In the absence of instrumental surveys affording data for the construction of profiles, no opinion can be formed as to the prae- ticability of this route for a railroad. Should it be found practi- cable, however, it will lessen the length of the route of the 41st parallel, and still further diminish its difficulties, already known to be less than on any other route except that of the 32d parallel. Route near the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth parallels of north latitude-—The exploration of the route conducted by Captain J. W. Gunnison, corps of Topographical Engineers, commenced on the Missouri at the mouth of the Kansas, about 245 miles from the Mississippi at St. Louis. The Kansas, and its branch called the Smoky Hill fork, were followed to a convenient point for crossing “to the Arkansas, the valley of this latter river having entered west of the Great Bend and near the meridian of 99°. The route then ascended the valley of the Arkansas to the mouth of Apishpa creek, fifty miles above Bent’s Fort; leaving it here, and crossing to the entrance of the Rocky mountains, here called the Sierra Blanca, at the Huerfano Butte, on the river of that name, a tributary of the Arkansas. The elevation at this point is 6,099 feet; its distance from Westport, mouth of the Kansas river, by the railroad route, 654 miles. Of the several passes through the Rocky mountains connect- ing the tributaries of the Huerfano with those of the Rio del Norte, but one, the Sangre de Cristo, was found practicable for a railroad, the new and only practicable approach to this pass being explored by Captain Gunnison. By side location the sum- mit, 9,219 feet above the sea, 692 miles from Westport, was at- tained, and the descent made to the valley of the Rio Grande with practicable though heavy grades; and thence the grades were favorable to the vicinity of Fort Massachusetts. The western chain of the Rocky mountains is now to be crossed in order to gain and traverse the basins of the two great tributaries of the Colorado of the West, Grand and Green rivers. For this purpose the valley of San Luis, an extensive, unculti- vable plain, covered for the most part with wild sage, was as- cended with easy grades to Sahwatch creek, one of whose afflu- ents rises in a pass of the Rocky mountains, here called the ge mountains, known by the name of the Coo-che-to-pa ASS. The approach to the summit of the pass, 10,032 feet above the sea, 816 miles from Westport, is not favorable, the pass in this part having a defile character, overhung occasionally b walls of igneous rock. To cross the summit, a grade of 124 feet per mile for several miles, and a tunnel nearly two miles ‘long are required. The descent, with grades varying from 41 to 108 feet per mile, is by the valley of Pass creek, along which | much cutting and filling will be necessary, as the hills are cut by Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 85 numerous ravines. For 16 miles before the junction of Pass creek with Coo-che-to-pa creek, the former passes through a bro- ken cafion. After following Coo-che-to-pa creek seven miles, the valley of Grand river is attained. The route follows the valley of this river 173 miles, then crosses the divide to Green river, 68 miles, and by the tributa- ries of the latter approaches the pass through the Wahsatch mountains. A tunnel three-quarters of a mile long is here re- quired, the eastern approach to which is by means of a grade of 125 feet per mile for 64 miles, and a descent to the west for 5 miles of 131 feet per mile. hence westward along the valley of Salt creek for 18 miles the grade is 95 feet per mile, 16 miles of which is through a rocky cafion, intersected by lateral streams. The route then enters the valley of the Sevier, the exploration terminating on this river, 86 miles farther on, and 1,848 miles from Westport. From the western border of the State of Missouri to the Rocky mountains, 650 miles, no timber suitable for railroad purposes will be found, upon which reliance can be placed. From the Coo-che-to-pa Pass to the Great Basin, 500 miles, there is none available on the route, and the nearest supplies on the moun- tains bordering the Great Basin are in latitudes 40° and 41°. With building-stone it is about as well supplied as the other routes. Of water there is a sufficient supply, except between Grand and Green river, a distance of 70 miles, where, at certain seasons of the year, little or none is found. : The soil west of the meridian of 99° is, under the present me- teorological conditions, uncultivable, except in limited portions of river-bottoms and small mountain valleys; these latter, from their great elevation, being better adapted to grazing than agri- cultural purposes. This description is completely in accordance with the geological formation and meteorological condition; the former, from the meridian of 99° west, being apparently tertiary, excepting in the high mountain passes. This route may be considered to possess, in common with that of the 41st parallel, the large body of fertile soil in Utah Terri- tory occupied by the Mormons, the area of which is about 1,108 square miles. The coal field of Missouri lies at the eastern extremity of this route; the indications of coal in the Grand and Green River ba- sins make it highly probable that seams sufficiently thick for profitable mining exist there. In regard to grade and construction, it is unnecessary to enter into any discussion of that portion of the route from Westport to’ the Sangre de Cristo Pass. It presents no peculiar difficulties or advantages, but is similar to the routes of the 47th and 41si parallels. : 86 zplorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. It would appear that the Sangre de Cristo and Coo-che-to-pa Passes are practicable in grade; but the construction of the road through the Coo-che-to-pa Pass, and the western approach to it, would be costly under favorable circumstances of population, &c., not only on account of the tunnel, but of the numerous ra- vines that are crossed west of the pass, and the cafion that follows. * % % * * The difficulties of engineering and the cost of construction of this portion of the route from the Coo-che-to-pa Pass to Sevier river, in the Great Basin, a distance of about 500 miles, would be so great that it may be pronounced impracticable; and it is evident, from the report of Lieutenant Beckwith, that, to use his own language, ‘‘no other line exists, in the immediate vicinity of this, worthy of any attention in connexion with the construction of a railroad from the Mississippi river to the Great Basin.” * % & % * Route near the thirty-fifth parallel of north latitude-—Commenc- ing at Fort Smith, on the Arkansas river, about 270 miles from the Mississippi at Memphis, the route, as far as the Antelope Hills on the Canadian, a distance of 400 miles, may follow either the valleys of the Arkansas and Canadian, or a shorter line per- haps, but over more ground, south of the Canadian, this latter route branching again, and following either the valley of the Washita, or the dividing ridge between it and the pore From the Antelope Hills the route continues along the bottom of the Canadian, on the right bank, to the mouth of Tucumcari creek, about 250 miles, and ascends by the valley of Tucumcari, or by that of Pajarito creek, to the dividing ridge between the Canadian and the Pecos rivers, elevation about 5,548 feet, and enters the valley of the latter. It follows this valley until, by means of a tributary, it rises to the high table-land, or basin, lying east of the Rocky mountains, elevation about 7,000 feet, crosses the elevated Salinas basin, 30 miles wide, the lowest point being 6,471 feet, and gains the divide in the Rocky moun- tains, elevation about 7,000 feet; from which point it descends to Albuquerque, or Isleta, on the Rio Grande, through the San Pedro Pass; or it may descend to the Rio Grande by the valley of the Galisteo river, north of Sandia mountain. A third route is indicated along the valley of the Pecos to its headwaters; thence to an affluent of the Galisteo; and thence, as before, to the Rio Grande. Isleta, on the Rio Grande, is 854 miles from Fort Smith, and 4,945 feet above the sea. Crossing the ridge separating the Rio Grande from the Puerco, the route follows the valley of its tributary, the San José, to one of its sources in a pass of the Sierra Madre, called the Camino del Obispo; at the summit, (elevation 8,250 feet,) a tun- Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. 87 nel three-fourths of a mile long, at an elevation not less than 8,000 feet, is required, when the descent is made to the Zufii river and near the Pueblo of Zufi. The route then crosses, over undulating ground, to the Puerco of the West, at the Navajo spring. ' dither route across the Sierra Madre, about twenty miles farther north, was examined by Mr. Campbell, which is far more favorable. The height of the summit is about 6,952 feet above the sea and it is passed without a tunnel [as stated in a subse- quent Report of Capt. A. A. Humphreys, U.S. Topog. Eng. ] The Puerco of the West heads in this pass, and the route follows the valley of this stream, (intersecting the other line at Navajo spring,) to its junction with the Colorado Chiquito; then the valley of that stream to the foot of the southeastern slopes of the San Francisco mountains, (112° W.) elevation 4,775 feet ; distance from Fort Smith 1,182 miles, and from the crossing of the Rio Grande 328 miles. Here it ascends to the dividing ridge between the waters of the Gila on the south, and of the Colorado of the West on the north, and continues (or nearly so) upon it for about 200 miles, to the Aztec Pass, elevation 6,281 feet; distance from Fort Smith 1,350 miles. The highest point reached upon this undulating ridge is 7,472 feet, at Le- roux’s spring, at the foot of the San Francisco mountain. From the Aztec Pass, the descent to the Colorado of the West is made by a circuitous route northward along valleys of its tributaries, the largest and last being Bill Williams’s fork, the mouth of which, on the Colorado, is 1,522 miles from Fort Smith, and at an elevation above the sea of about 208 feet. The Colorado is now ascended 34 miles, when the route, leav- ing it at the Needles, follows what was erroneously supposed to be the valley of the Mohave river, but which proved to be the valley of a stream, dry at the time, whose source was in an elevated ridge, which probably divides the Great Basin from the waters of the Colorado. The summit having been attained, at an elevation of 5,262 feet above the sea, the descent is made to Soda lake, the recipient at some seasons of the waters of the Mohave river, 1,117 feet above the sea, with an average grade of 100 feet to the mile for 41 miles—the steepest grade yet re- quired on this route. From Soda lake, the ascent to the summit of the Cajon Pass, elevation 4,179 feet, in the Sierra Nevada, is made by following the valley of the Mohave river. The summit of this pass, by the line of location, is 1,798 miles from Fort Smith, and 242 from the point of crossing the Colorado. Here a tunnel of 24 or 3,4, miles through white conglomerate sand- stone is required, descending to the west with an inclination of 100 feet to the mile, which grade will be the average for 22 miles into the valley of Los Angeles, if the broken character of 88 Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railroad. the hills should be found, upon careful examination, to admit of such side location as would reduce to that degree the natural grades varying between 90 and 171 feet per mile. Thence to the port of San Pedro the ground is favorable for location. * * [I'he subsequent Report referred to above, states that the tun- nel of the Cajon Pass may be avoided, and the whole distance from Fort Smith to San Pedro by the plotted railroad track is 1,760 miles instead of 1,892 miles, the length before given. Other dis- tances, and the elevations of some of the passes, are also reduced. | Forest growth, furnishing timber of size suitable for ties and lumber for railroad uses, is found in the following localities: continuously on the route east of longitude 97°; in or near the Pecos valley; in the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Madre; in the Mogollon mountains, (south of the route,) in which the Colorado Chiquito and some of its tributaries rise; on the slopes of the San Francisco mountain; and continuously, with short intervals, for more than 120 miles; and on the Sierra Nevada. The distances apart of these points of supply are respectively 540 miles, 100 miles, 150 miles; from the Sierra Madre to San Francisco mountain, 250 miles; then for a space of about 120 miles the supply may be considered continuous; thence to the Sierra Nevada, 420 miles. here (The subsequent Report, states the expenses of this route as” follows : , From Fort Smith to San Pedro, 1760 miles, $86,130,000 From Fort Smith to San Francisco, crossing direct from the Mohave river to the Tay-ee-chay-pah Pass, dis- tance 2,025 miles, $94,720,000] Route near the thirty-second parallel of north latitude-—The ex- plorations made upon this route are, from Preston, on Red river, to the Rio Grande, by Capt. John Pope, Topographical Engi- neers; from the Rio Grande, near Fort Fillmore, to the Pimas villages, on the Gila, by Lieut. John G. Parke, Topographical Engineers, From the Pimas villages to the mouth of the Gila, the reconnoissance in New Mexico and California of Major W. H. Emory, Topographical Engineers, in 1846, has been used; and from the mouth of the Gila to San Francisco, the explora- tion of Lieut. R. 8. Williamson, Topographical Engineers, has furnished the data. Fulton, on the Red river, about 150 miles from the Mississippi, may be considered the eastern terminus of the route, although the examination of Capt. Pope extends only to Preston, 133 miles farther west. A direct line from Fulton to the point on the eastern border of the Llano Estacado selected by Capt. Pope for crossing it, would give more favorable ground than that trav- ersed by him between Preston and this point; the latterin a distance of 352 miles gives generally easy grades and cheap Explorations and Surveys for the Pacific Railrord. — 89 construction through a country alternately wooded and open, abundantly supplied with water and fuel, and with forest growth suitable for ties and lumber for two-thirds of the length. From Fulton to the eastern border of the Llano Hstacado is 485 miles, 870 of which are wooded. The exploration of Capt. Pope comprised three distinct belts ef country, the first of which has been just described above. The second is the Llano Hstacado, whose mean elevation is 4,500 feet, the smooth surface of which along the route pro- posed, 225 miles from the eastern border to the Pecos river, presents in this respect great facilities for the construction of a railroad. It is, however, at certain seasons of the year destitute of water, is scantily supplied with grass, and nota single tree is to be seen upon it. Its geological formation is such as to render the success of obtaining water by artesian wells, at mod- erate depths, highly probable [since proved practicable by trial. ] During, and for some time subsequent to the rainy season, there are here, as on most other arid plains, numerous ponds, the con- tents of which might be collected in reservoirs; but the distance from the Colorado Springs to the Pecos, 125 miles, is not so great as to form a serious obstacle to the working of a railroad. Between the Pecos and the Rio Grande, 163 miles, three mountain chains rise from the table-lands, the Guadalupe, Hueco, and Organ mountains. The Guadalupe mountain is crossed without a tunnel, elevation of summit 5,717 feet, and with a grade of 108 feet to the mile for 22 miles. .- ae Sulphate of Roda) - - - -- 15:10 Water, - - - - - 10°30 With traces of pone matter; sulphate of lime and chlorid of sodium. —— 99.40 It occurs abundantly in irregular corroded, drusy shaped masses, (but very rarely crystalline) often coated on one side with pyro- clasite; and sometimes, the two species are intimately blended together. It is named out of regard to its sucha to apatite and to glauber’s salt. * Even when heated with caustic potash or lime. Correspondence of J. Nickles. 99 5. E'piglaubite. In small aggregates, or interlaced masses of minute semi-trans- parent crystals of a shining vitreous lustre, which are always implanted upon druses of glaubapatite. H. = about 2:5. Yields abundance of water when heated in a close tube. Inso- luble in water, until after addition of hydrochlyric acid, when it disappears without effervescence. Melts easily into a semi-trans- parent colorless glass tinging the flame green. It 1s a largely hydrated phosphate, chiefly of lime. It may also contain mag- nesia and soda; but at present the quantity in my possession is too small to determine more accurately its composition. It would appear to be rare at the locality. It is named from its position, upon the previously described species. ArT. XJ.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, , April 26th, 1856. Report on the history of the manufacture of Artificial Soda.—The question of priority as to the process of manufacturing artificial soda has just been the subject of thorough investigation by the Academy of Sci- ences. This work was called forth by the Minister of Public Instruction at the request of the children of Leblanc, author of the process which bears his name. Another claim, that of the children of Dizé, collaborator of Leblanc, being presented at the same time, the Section of Chemistry in the Academy of Sciences was obliged to proceed to a historical and bib- liographical research which has resulted in a complete elucidation by M. Dumas of this important point in the history of Science. The discovery of the process which derives soda from marine salt was made by Leblanc, who was also the first to give it a trial. It was not till afterward that he associated himself with Dizé, then chemical assist- ant at the College of France. Nicholas Leblanc was born in 1748. Toward 1780 he was attached as surgeon to the household of the Duke of Orleans. He commenced in 1785 his communications upon crystallization which gave him a distin- guished rank among the chemists of the time. His first researches upon methods of obtaining soda economically, date from 1784. This problem had already been broached, and different processes had been proposed for making soda from marine salt either by means of lime, or by means of the oxyd of lead, but without industrial results. In 1777, Father Malherbe, a Benedictine, pointed out a process of converting marine salt first into sulphate of soda which he afterwards decomposed by means of charcoal and iron; a process which has quite lately been put in practice by Mr. E. Kopp, as has been already men- tioned in this Journal.* . In 1789, De la Métherie proposed to convert marine salt into sulphate of soda, and to reduce this sulphate by carbon. This reduction would * Corr. of J. Nicklés, Nov. 1, 1855. 100 Correspondence of J. Nickles. only have given sulphuret of sodium. Leblanc was aware of this, and according to Dizé, trials were made by himself and Leblanc to decompose this sulphuret by means of carbonic acid. ‘This process, taken up by Pelletan in 1827, became the basis for establishing a manufactory i in Paris; but the enterprise was not successful, and up to this time the method is not employed. These processes were brought forward in consequence of competition for a prize offered by the old Academy of Sciences to the best work on the fabrication of soda from marine salt, The object was to protect the arts of bleaching, glass-making and soap-making against the evil effects of a rise in the price of pearlashes produced by the Revolutionary War in the United States, and also arise in the native sodas of Spain, and the scarcity of beds of native natron. The prize was not awarded. The production of artificial soda, like so many other inventions, was to . be accomplished only after obstinate trials, the theory of which was not to precede the results. It was not foreseen that in calcining the sulphate of soda with chalk and charcoal, an insoluble oxysulphuret would be ob- tained containing all the sulphur, and capable of yielding to water all the carbonate of soda contained in the product. This is the discovery of Leblanc. It belongs entirely to him as M. Dumas has established by means of written documents of incontestable authenticity, from which it appears that on the 12th February, 1790, there was formed before a notary a company: for carrying out the inven- tion, a company composed of M. Leblanc, Dizé, and as loaner of the funds, the Duke of Orleans. To the fabrication of artificial soda, the making of sal ammoniac, and of white lead were added, processes of which Dizé was the author. The Company was established at St. Denis near Paris, in a factory called Franciade, and the manufacture commenced but without much success. The events of the Revolution soon caused the sequestration of the property of the Duke of Orleans and consequently that of the soda factory in which he was the capitalist. At the same time, upon the proposition of a member of the national convention, Citizen Carny, possessor of a process for the extraction of soda, an appeal was made to all Frenchmen to make within three months a surrender of their private interests and to deposit upon the altar of their country the processes which would allow the manufacture of soda from a product drawn from French soil and which would thus relieve the country from the tax paid abroad. Twelve processes were sent to the Committee of Public Safety, ‘that of Leblanc among them. It was recognized as the best, and the Convention ordered the publication of his brevet dinvention taken in 17 91, but ac- knowledging his rights to a fair indemnity which the misfortunes of the time did not allow to be paid. The hour of reparation has at last arrived. The section of Chemistry in the Academy has decided as follows : “1. The important discovery of the process by which soda is extracted from marine salt belongs wholly to Leblanc. “2, Dizé made researches in common with Leblanc only for the pur- pose of determining the best proportions of the materials to be employed in the manufacture of soda, and for establishing the factory at St. Denis. 2 Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain. 101 “3. If then it is proposed to render just homage to the author of the discovery, it is due to the memory of Leblanc, and to his family should the testimonial be addressed.” | Leblanc was the type of the inventor; full of self denial, perseverance, confidence. His correspondence shows that he left no step untried, that might secure the success of his work. His savings, the fruit of labors undertaken from day to day, were all consecrated to this grand object; and when reduced to extremities, he exhausted every resource. At several times the Government sent him money, to encourage his researches, and on the 19 Fructidor an II. (1793) he obtained 4000 livres from the Committee of Public Safety to meet the advances he had made in reference to the project of which he was the inventor. Leblanc was a man both of imagination and knowledge. The most distinguished men of his times professed for him a warm sympathy. He took part in all those liberal associations where friends of science resorted. The government charged him with various scientific missions. He published various re- searches upon nickel, alum, sulphate of magnesia, the production and extraction of saltpetre, the chemical preparation of manures, &c., but he never realized the dream of his life. In despair, he destroyed himself on the 15th of January, 1806. He left two sons, one of whom, a professor in the Conservatoire of Arts and Trades, has acquired a high reputation in the industrial world by his publications and the progress which he has made in the invention of machines. Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain—In presenting to the Academy of Sciences the important work of M. Stanislas Julien on Chinese porcelain, a work mentioned in my last communication, M. Chevreul gave a brief review of its contents. The art of making porcelain has been carried back to an exaggerated — antiquity. It is now demonstrated that the earliest porcelains were made in China at an epoch between 185 B.C. and 87 A.D. The porcelain vases found in the tombs of Egypt are not of the antiquity attributed to them. M. Julien has contributed not a little to correct this error. The Chinese author passes in review, according to the order of time and place of fabrication, the different porcelains most renowned in China. A chart of that empire indicates the location of the ancient and modern manufactures, adding much to the interest of the text. The idea of this is due to the learned translator. The processes of manufacture are de- scribed with clearness and method, and fourteen plates are reproduced from the original work. Finally the very precise notes of M. Salvétat, dissipate the doubt in which the text might leave the reader. The interest of the book is not limited to an exhibition of the manu- facture of Chinese porcelain, for M. Julien, in annexing to his translation from the Chinese a translation of the Art of making Japanese Porcelain, has done all which depended on him to render his book useful to those who consult the book from an interest in the history of the art or in the ceramic industry. M. Julien has also given the means of comparing the processes of China and Japan with those of Europe; a task entrusted to M. Salvétat. The analogies and differences of manufacture could not be shown with more clearness than is here done by the skillful chemist of Sevres. The 102 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Chinese paste, like the European, is composed of a variable mixture of kaolin, that is of a material infusible in the heat of the porcelain furnace, and of material which is fusible; the glazing is of fusible material. This is the analogy. The difference is that the fusible material mixed with the composition in China is flint, but at Sévres it is composed of sandy matter’ coming from the washing of kaolin and chalk. The glazing of Chinese porcelain is flint mixed with lime and frequently with frit. The glazing at Sevres is of pure flint. The porcelain of China is less resist- ant to fire than that of Sevres. The Chinese do not, like the Japanese and Europeans, apply the glazing to the biscuit. There are other differ- ences in the application of the coloring matters and in the composition of some of the varieties. The typography of this work does honor in every respect to M. Mallet-Bachelier. Peculiar arrangement of a Voltaic Battery.—This battery is designed for medicinal uses. It has been contrived by a constructor at Paris, M. Breton, and is maintained in a state of constant moisture with chlorid of calcium. For one of the poles there is a mixture of copper filings with saw-dust, the latter designed to separate the metallic particles,—the filings are mixed with a solution of chlorid of calcium. The other pole is a similar mixture in which the copper is replaced by zine filings. These two preparations placed in a vase and separated by a porous cell, make a battery which has always the same intensity of action on account of its constant humidity and the indefinite number of its elements. The natural state of Hippuric Acid—So great differences exist in re- gard to the proportions of hippuric acid contained in the normal state in the urine of the horse, that a chemist, M. Roussin, has undertaken to find out whether these differences are those of calculation or are really well founded. After numerous determinations, he has recognized the fact that the proportions of hippuric acid vary like the urea according as the horse is at work or rest. The following table contains the results of the trials. The urea has been determined in the condition of dry nitrate. Hippuric acid Nitrate of urea in | litre. in | litre. A MOMMIDUS HORSES, Voie 2 «eo iscss, ie wlohe he 78 grammes a ti TREMOR BVOENG) fs peca anita entitle 10:0 % 18 grammes 3. Arabian stallions, completely quiet, ree, Os) Fs 32 fi 4, rf ei OO. i 35 yy 5) (73 14 66 6é eee 0:0 66 33 66 6. 6c 4 6c 15 ah 0:0 79 84 74 es EO" SWORSOS ALU WOOT, « 's i jaico wisi snoueee 5:0 ie 21 at 8. “horse fatigued by a long course, 13-0 Me 12 ‘6 9. “horse after a very long course, 14:0 ee 15 ff Hence it is clear that horses fatigued produce much hippuric acid and comparatively little urea. Horses well fed and quiet produce little or no hippuric acid. Urea on the contrary is found in their urine in very large proportions. Its limpidity may be the index. If the liquid is clear and deposits little carbonate of lime it has much urea and little hippuric acid ; if it is muddy, it is certain that there is much hippuric acid. Respiratory activity and the employment of muscular force accordingly seem to trans- form urea into hippuric acid. Rest, on the contrary, leaves the urea in- tact, and does not appear to favor its transformation into hippuric acid. Astronomical News. 103 Astronomical news.—For some years, a Piedmontese engineer, M. Porro, established at Paris, Boulevard d’Enfer, quite near the Observatory, has been known among physicists and astronomers for his inventive genius and his executive talent. By the instruments which he has made, M. Porro, has caused great progress in two of the most beautiful applied sciences, astronomy and geodesy; and if his pecuniary resources equalled -his fertility of invention he would certainly attain great results. With small resources, he has made these instruments unique in their character which excite at the present moment great sensation. The first is a gigantic telescope, very simple and not costly, which shows the smallest stars with satisfactory roundness. It has distinctly divided, in a trial by the Frisiani method, two artificial stars of two-tenths of a second diameter separated by an interval of less than one second. There has as yet been no opportunity to make sufficient observations with this instrument, but there is great reason to hope that it will bear mag- nifying powers from 1500 to 1800 times, which is more than the immense telescopes of Herschel and Lord Rosse have ever successfully permitted. The mounting of so large a telescope would have presented very seri- ous difficulties if the usual system had been followed, and it would have been impossible according to received notions to have made a measuring instrument of it, if M. Porro had not conquered all the difficulties by making the whole telescope, balanced by two counterpoises, revolve around the immovable eye-piece. This construction at once simple and bold, allows the observer to be comfortably placed in a chair, likewise immoy- able, whence he can observe all portions of the heavens. The natural movements of the instrument as well as the means of measurement are alt-azimuthal, but by a very little simple artifice the op- . tical axis of the telescope may at pleasure follow the diurnal movement like an equatorial and give with sufficient precision upon two supplemen- tary coordinates, the stellar coérdinates. The astronomer has no occa- sion to leave his chair to read all the circles, the levels, &c. The instru- ment may also at any moment be brought strictly into the plane of the meridian and serve with great precision as a meridian telescope. Not- withstanding the heavy weight and great length of the tube of this in- strument, the azimuthal measurements naturally independent of refrac- tion are here absolute, that is to say, are independent of eccentricity, flexion, &c., thanks to the new and precise arrangements of the maker by means of which the line of vision of the telescope is placed optically in immediate relation with the fixed lines, the meridian and the vertical. The same is true nearly with the apozenith measurements as regards re- fraction. Astronomers know and moreover Sawich has demonstrated that azimuthal measurements alone, independent of refraction, may enter ad- vantageously and to a very great extent into the study of the heavens, Tn a word it is not merely in the extent of its optical power that this instrument is superior to all previously made, but also in the new means of measurement, the precision of which surpasses that of all known instru- ments. The price of the instrument moreover is moderate, within the reach of governments and rich amateurs. It is 160,000 francs. The flint glass of this instrument is of the make of Guinand; the crown glass was furnished by Maés of Clichy. Hitherto the cutting of these glasses has not been done mechanically and yet the degree of pre- cision attained by hand work is not satisfactory. To remedy this M. 104 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Porro has invented a very simple machine by means of which a spher- ical surface of given radius may be cut, “sans bassins,” and then this radius may be varied by insensible degrees with great perfection. This method, in connection with another piece of apparatus of his invention, the polyoptometer—for the examinations which should precede the cut- ting, and a new application of Frisiani’s method in what pertains to the verification of the work at every step of advancement,—allows of arriving, . without consulting the heavens, so near to perfection, that little remains to be done for attaining all desired distinctness. Equatorial Telescope—This instrument, also made by M. Porro, is equal in dimensions and power to that which has long been called the Colossus of Dorpat, but it displays great simplicity and has several pecu- liarities. The rotations of this instrument are spherical, and the trans- mission of the diurnal movement is made by the adhesion of two spher- ical surfaces. There is no window counterpoise; but lubricating. oil introduced together with pressure is advantageously substituted. The clock movement is produced by a hydraulic motor of peculiar construc- tion, the arrangements of which are simple and convenient, These com- binations are all such as to avoid the defects of wear. Zenith Telescope-—There is also, just now, at M. Porro’s, a zenith tel- éscope, bought by an amateur astronomer. It is eighteen decimeters long and has an aperture of one decimeter. This instrument gives at any time without inversion and without level, the exact place of the ze- nith. The latitude and time may hence be determined by means of it with the greatest precision and in the briefest time. M. Porro calls this telescope the direct zenith tube in distinction from the reflex zenith tube of Mr. Airy, which gives the zenith by reflexion upon a mercury bath. Stereoscopic experiment.—M. Lugeol, “ Contre-Amiral,” in making the stereoscopic portrait of one of his friends, had the idea of taking the two images or proofs one after another, and making his friend each time look upon a different object. Thus during the first sitting he looked at the object glass of the camera obscura, and during the second to the right at an object fixed nearly at an angle of 45°. These two images being placed in the stereoscope, let the observer stand opposite a window and without ceasing to look at the portrait, turn himself to the left or right, he will see the eyes of the portrait follow him as if they were animated. Use of brine in food.—In consequence of accidents caused by the use of the brine of herring or salt meat, the council of health in Paris has been charged with examining to what extent brine may be allowed in food. Numerous experiments have been tried at Alfort, which have led to the following conclusions. “The use of brine as a condiment or seasoning in the nourishment of man has hitherto had no injurious effect, and nothing authorizes the opin- ion that an economical process so advantageous for the poor should be proscribed. The same is not true of the abuse which is made of this sub- stance in the nourishment and in the treatment of the diseases of certain animals, especially swine and horses. Authentic facts and recent experi- ments show that the mixture of brine in considerable quantity with food may produce real poisoning. In all cases, brine preserved too long or in contact with rancid meat should not be employed except with the great- est care and after it has been purified by skimming all the scum which forms on the surface.” Scientific Intelligence. 105 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 2 I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the production of very high temperatures—Sainte CLAIRE Devitte has published an extended description of the methods em- ployed in his laboratory to produce high temperatures, and his paper possesses great value and interest. For operations on a small scale, De- ville employs a lamp of peculiar construction in which the vapor of oil of turpentine or any other liquid hydro-carbon is completely burned by means of a powerful artificial blast of air. The lamp in question would be scarcely intelligible without a figure, and we must refer for fuller de- tails of its construction to the original memoir. By its means a heat sufficient to melt feldspar can be easily produced, provided that the table bellows employed is of sufficient size and power. [We have found it in _practice less safe and convenient than the gas blast lamps with sixteen jets, troduced by Sonnenschein, but it gives a higher temperature. w.«G.| The other apparatus described by the author is a blast furnace in which platinum and many other substances can be fused. — It consists ef a cylinder of fire-clay 18 centimeters in diameter and somewhat higher than its width. This may be surmounted by a dome to prevent the escape of the coals from the force of the blast. This cylinder rests upon the edge of a hemispherical cavity connecting with a good forge bellows. A circular piece of cast iron pierced with openings about 10 millimeters in diameter and disposed round the edge of the plate forms the bottom of the cylinder and separates it from the cavity below. The author employs as fuel, cinders from the hearth of a furnace heated with the dry coal of Charleroy. These cinders are found mixed with pieces of coal and are sifted upon a sieve with square holes of 2 millimeters in the side. What passes through the sieve is rejected. The coals em- - ployed must vary from the size of a small pea to that of a nut. The crucible is placed in the centre of the cylinder and surrounded with kindled wood, upon which pieces of coal of the size of a nut are laid and upon these the proper fuel of the furnace. The blast is then forced in slowly and gradually increased. The force of the maximum tempera- ture begins about 2 or 3 centimeters above the iron plate and is only 7 or 8 centimeters high.: The coals above remain cold from the trans- formation of the carbonic acid into carbonic oxyd, which gas in the author’s furnace burns with a flame 2 meters in height. The heat pro- duced by this arrangement is called by the author the “blue heat,” from its peculiar tint. In it the best ordinary crucibles run down like glass. The author uses three kinds of crucible. The first is of quicklime and is made of well burned lime slightly hydraulic, which is cut with a knife or saw into prisms with a square base 8 or 10 centimeters in the side and 12 or 15 centimeters high. The edges are rounded and a hole is made in one end of convenient size. Sometimes an inner crucible is used, each having its own cover. When the substance to be heated is very refractory, only one crucible is used and the walls of this are made 3 or 4 centimeters thick. The base of the crucible must be 5 or 6 cen- SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 14 id) 106 ® Scientific Intelligence. timeters below the bottom of the cavity. The space between the cruci- ble and the walls of the cylinder must be 5 or 6 centimeters. In using a lime crucible, charcoal is first to be introduced, little by little, till the crucible is covered, the heat is then very gradually increased till the crucible becomes red, when the coals are removed to make sure that the crucible is not cracked, after which the heat may be urged to the utmost. The second kind of crucible is of carbon. The author uses gas-retort carbon and fashions it on a lathe. ‘To free the material from impurities it may then be strongly heated in a current of chlorine, by which pro- cess it loses weight. These crucibles are placed within crucibles of lime, the intervening space being filled with calcined alumina. The third species of crucible is made of alumina, obtained by calcining ammonia- alum. Thus prepared it is plastic, but shrinks much on drying. To prevent this, the author mixes the mass with a calcined mixture of alu- mina and marble. A mixture of plastic alumina, calcined alumina and aluminate of lime, in equal parts, gives a very hard and infusible mass, which softens a little at the melting point of platinum. Once baked, these crucibles resist all tests; even sodium has no action on them. The lime crucibles may be used whenever the alkali is not imjurious; the carbon crucibles have a more limited use in consequence of their reduc- ing agency. The alumina crucibles may be used almost always when lime will not answer. With respect to the heat produced by this fur- nace the author gives the following details. Platinum fuses m a crucible of lime into a single well-united button. This platinum possesses prop- erties very different from those of ordinary platinum condensed from the sponge. When copper is plated with the fused platinum rolled out into a very thin sheet, nitric acid has no action whatever, as it does not pene- trate the leaf of metal. A plate made from fused platinum does not cause the union of oxygen and hydrogen even after several hours. Fused platinum possesses a perfect softness and malleability. In a crucible of carbon, platinum melts easily but yields a brittle alloy of platinum, carbon and silicon, By raising the heat above the temperature required for fusion, Deville succeeded in volatilizing the metal with remarkable ease, so that it condensed in small globules. Pure peroxyd of manganese heated with carbon from sugar in quantity less than sufficient to reduce the oxyd, gave fused metallic manganese as a brittle mass, having a rose reflection like bismuth and as easily reduced to powder. Its powder decomposed water at a little above the ordinary temperature. Chromium as prepared in a similar manner was well fused, but not into a button, at the temperatnre at which platinum volatilizes. The metal is brittle and cuts glass like a diamond. It is easily attacked by chlorhydric acid, but little by sulphuric acid, and not at all by nitric acid either strong or weak. Metallic nickel fuses to a homogeneous button which may be forged with great facility. It has a ductility almost without limit and is more tenacious than iron in the ratio of 90 to 60, according to Werth- eim’s experiments. This nickel contained traces of silicon and copper.. Fused cobalt is as ductile as nickel and still more tenacious. According to Wertheim its tenacity is to that of iron as 115 to 60, or nearly double. The most refractory body which the author fused was silica, which, however, in quantities of 30 grammes was not perfectly liquified. The Chemistry and Physics. = 107 author considers the fusion of this body as the limit beyond which pro- cesses do not go.—Ann, der Chimie et de Physique, xlvi, 182, February, 1856, 2. On a new mode of forming ether and its homologues.— Wurtz finds that oxyd of silver and iodid of ethyl heated together yield iodid of sil- ver and oxyd of ethyl. A mixture of one equivalent of iodid of ethyl with one of iodid of methyl, heated with oxyd of silver, gives the double oxyd of ethyl and methyl CaHsO--C2H0 or Gs t Oz. lodid of amyl also acts on oxyd of silver, but in this case amylene and fusel oil are formed, since 2(C10 Hi2 02) == Cio Hi2O2+4+CioHi0, The true amylic ether, CioH110 or ee escapes the decomposition. The author considers these experiments as furnishing strong evidence that the true formulas of all anhydrous pro- toxyds are comprised under the general formula ReO2—Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xlvi, 222. 3. On the equivalent of Antemony.—ScuneipeEr has made a new deter- mination of the equivalent of this element, and finds the number ob- tained by Berzelius much too high. The author employed in his investi- gation a native sulphid of antimony which contained no other impurity than a little quartz, the quantity of which could easily be determined. The antimony and sulphur in this compound were determined by slow ignition in a current of hydrogen, corrections being applied for a very small quantity of sulphur remaining in the reduced antimony and for a minute proportion of the sulphid carried over mechanically. In six experiments the quantity of antimony in 100 parts was found to be 71°427—71°519. From this it follows that the equivalent of the metal is 1503 (O==100) or 120:°25 (H==1). Berzelius determined it to be 1613.—Pogg. Ann. xcvii, 483. 7 4. On the detection of phosphorus in cases of poisoning —MirscHERLICH has published a very simple and satisfactory method of detecting phos- phorus in forensic investigations. The matter to be tested for phospho- rus is to be distilled in a flask with water and sulphuric acid and the vapors conveyed through a glass tube into a vertical glass condenser. This condenser is simply a glass tube which passes through the bottom of a wide glass cylinder filled with cold water, which is constantly re- newed by a funnel. A vessel to receive the distillate is placed under the end of the condensing tube. (The arrangement resembles Liebig’s condenser placed vertically). If there be phosphorus in the substance in the flask, its vapor passes over with the stream into the condenser and a distinct light is seen in the dark where the vapors meet the cooled portion of the tube. This light lasts for a very long time, and a lumin- ous ring is usually observed. More than three ounces of fluid could be distilled from substances which contained only the ¢gg!s5g9 of phospho- rus without a cessation of the light. Even after fourteen days the effect was observable. An addition of oil of turpentine prevents the light, but alcohol and ether distill over and then the light appears. In the dis- tillate, globules of phosphorus may be detected and are easily recog- nized. These were observed even in a mass which contained but 4 of a O2, is formed at the same time and in part 108 | Scientific Intelligence. grain of phosphorus in 5 ounces of matter. When the mass contains much phosphorus the distillate contains phosphorous acid, which is easily oxydized and detected. The author found that phosphoric and phos- phorous acids do not pass over when distilled carefully with water. A fresh human stomach boiled with water gives no soluble phosphates; on the other hand a stomach in a state of decay yields to water phosphoric acid which can readily be detected by ammonia and magnesia.—Chem- asches Central Blati. No. 8, 113, Feb. 20, 1856. 5. Sulphate of Nickel—Manrtenac finds that the quadratic sulphate of nickel contains but 6 equivalents of water instead of 7 as formerly asserted. The rhombic (trimetric) crystals contain 7 eqs. of water, and are isomorphous with the sulphates of zinc and magnesia; they crystal- lize from a pure solution at from 15° to 20°C, Thus quadratic crystals separate at a temperature of from 30° to 40°, the monoclinic crystals between 50° and 70°. The monoclinic crystals also contain 6 eqs. of water. When the rhombic crystals pass in the sunlight into the quad- ratic form, they lose 6°40 per cent. water. The monoclinic crystals re- main transparent above 40° C.; at ordinary temperatures they become gradually opaque without loss of water and pass into the quadratic form, It is therefore proved that there is no trimorphous sulphate of nickel, and that it is only the sulphate with 6 eqs. of water which is dimorph- ous. Solutions of sulphate of magnesia at 70°, sulphate of zinc from 50° to 55°, and sulphate of cobalt from 40° to 50°, gave crystals with 6 eqs. of water isomorphous with the monoclinic sulphate of nickel—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xevii, 294. _ 6. Specific volume of compounds containing Nitrogen—Korpr has pub- lished a brief notice of his researches upon this pot, and finds that the specific volume of nitrogen in the volatile bases 1s 2°3; that of cyanogen in the cyanids 28; and that of NOs in the nitro compounds 33. The empirical laws which Kopp has discovered for the compounds of carbon and hydrogen, or carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, hold good also for bodies containing nitrogen, so long as these bodies belong to the same group. If we recognize in the different types a real difference of internal consti- tution, the consideration of the specific volume affords a good means of determining to what type a body belongs. Thus from their spec. vols. it appears that the nitrites of the ethyl series belong to the type of hydrogen and not to that of water. Nitrite of ethyl is oo like rs ; and not ee O2 like E Oz. In other words, the nitrite of ethyl bears the same relation to the nitrate ee O2 which the cyanid of ethyl] ee does to the cyanate at Oz, The author promises to consider the subject more fully hereafter— ye cat wie ate ace 10°93 In one gallon of Schuylkill water,,...s 2... s 0s soe ee eee 5°50 The most remarkable thing about these results is that notwithstanding the quantity of sand, mud, and other sediment which is suspended in the river water, so much as to injure the pumps, and which must be in great measure deposited and separated from the water in the reservoir, the latter, nevertheless, actually contains more solid matter than the river water itself. This can only be accounted for by the favorable conditions presented in the reservoir for the growth of minute animals and plants, whose remains add of course to the weight of the solid residue obtained on evaporation. My pupil, Mr. Howland Bill, has at my request -sub- mitted the water in the reservoir, and the deposit formed at the bottom, to a microscopic examination, and reports to me that he finds in the water several varieties of animalcules and lichens or minute plants, and that the sediment especially is almost wholly composed of forests of min- ute plants through which roam herds of such animals as Volvox globator, or “ globejelly,” Vibrio anser, or “ goose animalcule,” and several species of Baccillaria and Navicula. On the surface of the water he found a slight green scum, which when magnified resolved itself ito collections of the Cercarca mutabilis, an animal production characteristic of stagnant water. Numerous large green water weeds may also be seen floating in the reservoir. * Silliman’s Journal, [2], ii, 221. Geology. 125 Recurring to the results given above, it may also be remarked that the river water is really somewhat less charged with foreign ingredients than that of the springs, although the latter is so much more pleasant to per- sons possessing delicate organs of taste. This probably arises from the fact that the principal mineral ingredient in spring water, as shown by the analysis, is chlorid of sodium or common salt, while the river water is principally contaminated with carbonates of lime, magnesia, potash, etc., which give water a bitter taste. The analysis will be found below in a complete form and arranged so as to admit of a comparison between the composition of the river and the springs. RIVER. SPRINGS. Grains in one gallon of 58,372 grains. Whole solid matter found, .... 2... 6.0.5.0: 3°534581 3°607750 Smet CR MMC, . 0. ee de ce cee 8 1300000 Wet enane GL TNAGNOSIA, 2.6. ee soles ews "889972 ——— ApOMbe OE TOUS, oe es ce ew one ee ne "172471 Hate OF POONUIT, ose os ak eee ewe wo "106834 1021225 GOR! GF POSSUM, i ik ee en oe "012190 Sulphate of lime, . 2... eee. giles ee sae "185847 009233 Phosplate of lime,...s....... Sr ctey at apn "142338 "144659 “5 eal aA Rt Ree 497587 155894 Sesquioxyd of iron, with trace of Alumina,.... °027453 "126778 : 1 Das ea ey 277662 In combination with the silica 4 Magnesia, .... ———— 355620 and organic matter, ) Potash, ..... —— "493059 | [SOm c's se'e 173518 Fever TAMMOANCSE,, 0 ee ee ce ss trace. Ts oe ge Wives ois wine wee oy oats trace Organic matter containing ammonia,........ "634852 558342 CCUG PERU) ose ee ea. as +/. 100071 99972 The specific gravity of the Reservoir water was 1:00064. On comparison of this analysis of the waters of the Delaware with other analyses of river waters, the fact is rendered apparent that few rivers exist whose waters are so free from impurity. All causes of complaint which have arisen are due to the improper mode of storing the water for use. Open reservoirs, in which the water is kept standing for several days to stagnate in the heat of the sun, are perfect hotbeds for the growth. of animal and vegetable life. Finding every necessary requisite to their germination, light, heat, and an unlimited supply of fertilizing mineral substances, phosphates, sulphates, carbonates and silicates of lime, potash, ammonia, etc., infinite numbers of minute seeds spring forth into growing plants, which in their turn furnish nourishment to innumerable swarms of living animals engendered from their embryos preéxistent in the water. The breeding of these microscopic creatures, under favorable circum- stances, is so rapid that in a very few hours the water will become alive with them. 126 Scientific Intelligence. 7. On the successive Changes of the Temple of Serapis; by Sir Cuartus Lyin, F.R.S., (Proc. Roy. Inst. of Great Britain, March 7, 1856.)—The Temple of Serapis, near Naples, is, perhaps, of all the structures raised by the hands of man, the one which affords most instruction to a geolo- gist. It has not only undergone a wonderful succession of changes in past time, but is still undergoing changes of condition, so that it is ever a matter of fresh interest to learn what may be the present state of the temple, and to speculate on what next may happen to it. This edifice was exhumed in 1750, from a mixed deposit, extending for miles along the eastern shores of the bay of Baiz, and consisting partly of strata containing marine shells, with fragments of bricks, pottery, and sculpture, and partly of volcanic matter of subaerial origin. Various theories were proposed in the last century to explain the lithodomous perforations, and attached serpule, observed on the middle zone of the three erect marble columns now standing; some writers, and the celebrated Goethe among the rest, suggesting that a lagoon had once existed in the atrium, filled, during a temporary incursion of the sea, with salt water, and that marine mollusca and annelids flourished for years in that lagoon, at a height of 12 feet or more above the sea level. This hypothesis was ad- vanced at a time when almost any amount of fluctuation in the level of the sea was thought more probable than the slightest alteration in the level of the solid land. In 1807, the architect Niccolini observed that the pavement of the temple was dry, except when a violent south wind was blowing; whereas, on revisiting the temple 15 years later, he found the pavement covered by salt water twice every day at high tide. This induced him to make a series of measurements from year to year, first from 1822 to 1838, and afterwards from 1838 to 1845; from which he inferred that the sea was gaining annually upon the floor of the temple, at the rate of about one-third of an inch during the first period, and about three-fourths of an inch during the second. Mr. Smith, of Jordan- hill, when he visited the temple in 1819, had remarked that the pave- ment was then dry, but that certain channels cut in it for draining off the waters of a hot spring, were filled with sea water. On his return, in 1845, he found the high-water mark to be 28 inches above the pavement, which, allowing a slight deduction on account of the tide, exhibited an average rise of about an inch annually. As these measurements are in accordance with others, made by Mr. Babbage in 1828, and by Professor James Forbes, in 1826 and 1843, Mr. Smith believes his own conclusion to be nearest the truth, and attributes the difference between his average and that obtained by Niccolini (especially in the first set of measurements by the latter observer), to the rejection by the Italian architect, of all the highest water-marks of each year, causing his mean to be below the true mean level of the sea. In 1852, Signor Arcangelo Scacchi, at the re- quest of Sir Charles Lyell, visited the temple, and compared the depth of water on the pavement with its level as previously ascertained by him- self in 1839, and found, after making allowance for the tide at the two periods, that the water had gained only 44 inches in thirteen years, and was not so deep as when measured by MM. Niccolini and Smith, in 1845 ; from which he inferred, that after 1845, the downward movement of the land had ceased, and before 1852, had been converted into an upward Geology. 127 movement. Since that period, no exact account of the level of the water seems to have been taken, or at least none which has been published. Sir Charles Lyell then called attention to the head of a statue, lent to him for exhibition by Mr. W. R. Hamilton, and which Mr. H. had pur- chased from a peasant at Puzzuoli, in the neighborhood of the temple. This head bears all the distinctive marks of the Jupiter Serapis of the Vatican; and, among others, a flat space is seen on the crown, doubtless intended to receive the ornament, called the modius, or bushel, an emblem of fertility, which adorns the ancient representations of this deity. One side of the head is uninjured, as if it had lain in mud or sand, while the other has “suffered a sea change,” having been drilled by small annelids, and covered with adhering serpule, as if submerged for years in salt water, like the three marble columns before mentioned. The speaker then alluded to an ancient mosaic pavement, found at the time of his examination of the temple, 1828, five feet below the present floor, implying the existence of an older building before the second tem- ple was erected. The latter is ascertained by inscriptions, found in the Interior, to have been built at the close of the second and beginning of the third centuries of the Christian era. : A brief chronological sketch was then given of the series of natural and historical events connected with the temple and the surrounding re- gion; comprising the volcanic eruptions of Ischia, Monte Nuovo, and Vesuvius; the date of the first and second temples, and their original height above the sea; the periods of the submergence and emergence of the second temple; the nature of the submarine and supramarine forma- tions, in which it was found buried in 1750; and, lastly, allusion was made to a bird’s-eye view of this region, published at Rome in 1652, . and cited by Mr. Smith, in which the three columns are represented as standing in a garden, at a considerable distance from the sea, and be- tween them and the sea two churches, occupying ground which has since disappeared. The history of the sinking and burying of the temple in the dark ages, respecting which no human records are extant, has been deduced from minute investigations made by Mr. Babbage and Sir Ed- mund Head, in 1828, respecting the nature and contents of certain de- posits formed round the columns, below the zone of lithodomous perfo- rations, The unequal amount of movement in the land and bed of the sea, and its different directions in adjoining areas in and around the bay of Baia, were then pointed out; and the fact that the Temples of Neptune and the Nymphs are now under water, as well as some Roman roads, while no evidence of any corresponding subsidence or oscillations of level are discoverable on the site of the city of Naples, which is only four miles distant in a straight line. Analogous examples of upward and downward movements in other parts of the Mediterranean were cited, such as the sarcophagus of the Telmessus in Lycia, described by Sir Charles Fellows ; and the changes in Candia, recently established by Captain Spratt, R.N., who has ascertained that the western end of that island has been uplifted 17 feet above its ancient level, while another part of the southern coast has risen more than 27 feet, so that the docks of ancient Grecian ports are upraised, as well as limestone rocks drilled by lithodomi. At the 128 Scientific Intelligence. same time the eastern portion of Candia (an island about 200 miles long,) has sunk many feet, causing the ruins of several Greek towns to be visible under water. Looking beyond the limits of the Mediterranean, the buried Hindoo temple of Avantipura in Cashmere, with its 74 pillars, described by Dr. Thomson and Major Cunningham, were mentioned, and how their envelopment in lacustrine silt, at some period after the year 850 of our era, had caused them and their statues to escape the fury of the Mahometan conqueror Sicander, who bore the name of the idol breaker. (Principles of Geology, 9th ed., p. 762.) The gradual subsidence of the coast of Greenland, and the elevation of a large part of Sweden, century after century, were also instanced; and lastly, the latest eyent of the kind, yielding to no other in the magnitude of its geological and geo- graphical importance, the earthquake of New Zealand, of January 23d, 1855. The shocks of this convulsion extended over an area of land and sea three times as large as the British Isles; after it had ceased, it was found that a tract of land, in the immediate vicinity of Wellington, com- prising 4600 square miles, or nearly equal to Yorkshire in dimensions, had been upraised from one to nine feet, and a range of hills, consisting of older rocks, uplifted vertically, while the tertiary plains to the east of it remained unmoved ; so that a precipice, nine feet in perpendicular height was produced, and is even said to be traceable for 90 miles inland, from north to south bordering the plain of the Wairarapa. In consequence of a rise of five feet of the land on the north side of Cook’s Strait, near Wellington and Port Nicholson, the tide had been almost excluded from the river Hutt, while on the south side of the same straits m the Middle Island, where the ground has sunk about five feet, the tide now flows several miles further up the river Wairau than before the earthquake.* * Some memoranda respecting the changes in physical geography, effected during the earthquake of January 23d, 1855, will be found in the Appendix of a new work by the Rey. Richard Taylor, entitled “ New Zealand and its Inhabitants,” Lon- don, 1855. These were furnished by Mr. Edward Roberts, of the Royal Engineer Department, who has since (March, 1856), on his return to London, communicated other particulars to Sir C. Lyell. Mr. Walter Mantell, also now in London, and who was in Wellington (New Zealand) during the shocks of last year, besides con- firming the statements of Mr. Roberts, has supplied valuable information respecting the geological structure of the country upraised or depressed during the catastro- phe. The upheaval around Wellington was only from one and a half to four feet, but went on increasing gradually to Muka Muka Point, 12 miles distant, in a direct line to the southeast, where it reached its maximum, amounting to nine feet, and beyond, or eastward of which, there was no movement. Mr. Roberts was enabled to make these measurements with accuracy, as a white zone of rock, covered with nullipores just below the level of low tide, was upraised. The perpendicular cliff, at the point above mentioned, formed part of the sea- ward termination of the Rimutaka chain of hills, which consist of argillite (not slaty), of ancient geological date. Their eastern escarpment faces a low country, consisting of very modern tertiary strata, which also terminate when they reach the sea ina cliff, 80 feet high, and considerably lower than that formed by the older rocks. This tertiary cliff remained absolutely unmoved, the junction of the older and newer rocks constituting a line of fault, running north and south, for a great distance (according to a resident, 90 miles,) inland along the base of the hills, where rising abruptly they bound the low tertiary plains. A fissure open in part of its course, and in which some cattle were engulphed in 1855, marks the line of fault in many places. Among other proofs of subsidence experienced on the opposite side of Cook’s Straits, or in the northern part of the Middle Island, contemporaneously with the Geology. 129 Sir Charles then alluded to his discovery, in 1828, of marine shells in volcanic tuff, at the height of nearly 2000 feet, in the island of Ischia; and to the exact agreement of these, as well as other fossil shells, since collected by M. Philippi, with species now inhabiting the Mediterranean. ff the antiquity of such elevated deposits, when contrasted with those found during the last 2000 years in the neighborhood of the Temple of Serapis, be as great as the relative amount of movement in the two cases, or as 2000 is to 80 feet, it would show how slowly the testaceous fauna of the Mediterranean undergoes alteration: and therefore the naturalists ought not to expect to detect any sensible variation in the marine fauna in the course of a few centuries, or even several thousand years. In conclusion: the probable causes of the permanent upheaval and subsidence of land were considered—the expansion of solid rocks by heat, and their contraction when the temperature is lowered, the shrink- age of clay when baked, the excess in the volume of melted stone over the same materials when crystallized, or in a state of consolidation ; and, lastly, the subterraneous intrusion of horizontal dikes of lava, such as may have been injected beneath the surface, when melted matter rose to the crater of Monte Nuovo, in 1538. A large colored section of a cliff, 1000 feet high, at Cape Giram, in Madeira, was referred to as illustrating the intrusion both of oblique and horizontal dikes, between layers of vol- canic materials previously accumulated above the level of the sea, and after Madeira had been already clothed with a vegetation very similar to that with which it is now covered. The intercalation of such horizontal sheets of lava between alternating beds of older lava and tuff would up- lift the incumbent rocks, and form a permanent support to them; but when the fused mass cools and consolidates, a partial failure of support — and subsidence would ensue. 8. A Geological Reconnoissance of the State of Tennessee, being the Author’s first Biennial Report, presented to the thirty-first General Assem- bly of Tennessee, December, 1855; by James Sarrorp, A. M., State Geologist, Professor of Natural Science in Cumberland University, Leba- non, Tennessee. 164 pp. With a colored Geological map of the State. Nashville, Tenn., 1856.—Prof. Safford is contributing much to our knowl- edge of the geology of Tennessee and its mineral resources. This bien- nial report is occupied mainly with the latter, taking up in order the ores of iron, copper, lead and zine, gold, coal, marble, greensand, hydraulic limestone, etc. The last 40 pages are devoted to the geological structure of the State, under which the foldings, dislocations, and denudation of the rocks are briefly discussed, and the order and character of the rocks explained. We cite the following from pages 148, 149 and beyond. upheaval above mentioned, Mr. Roberts states, that settlers have now to go three miles farther up the river Wairau to obtain supplies of fresh water, than they did before the earthquake of January, 1855. There was no volcanic eruption in the northern island at the time of these events; but the natives allege that the tem- perature of the Taupo hot-springs was sensibly elevated just before the catastrophe. During a previous earthquake in 1832, other alterations in the relative level of land and sea occurred; and many of the colonists fear a repetition of such move- ments every seven years, for in 1848 there were violent convulsions. The larger part, however, of New Zealand has not suffered any injury during the same period from earthquakes. SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 64.——JULY, 1856, 17 130 Scientific Intelligence. Table of the Geological Formations of Tennessee. Post-tErt1ARY.—(14.) Alluvial Series—2. “Bottoms” of the Missis- sippi; 1. Alluvial Bottoms of all the streams, and the gravel-beds of their channels, ete. (13.) The Bluf and Drift Series—8. Upper part of the Mississippi Bluffs; 2. The high gravel-beds in the vicinity of the East ‘Tennessee ‘rivers; 1. The gravel-beds of Hardin, Wayne, ? etc. Tertiary ?—(12.) Lignite Group.—t1. Lower part of the Mississippi Blufts—composed of sands, laminated clays, and beds of lignite, ete. Cretaceous.—(11.) Orange Sand Group.—4. The red ferruginous sandstone of the district; 3. The yellow and orange sands and stratified clays of the central part of the district; 2. The greensand of McNairy, etc.; 1. The clays and sands of Chalk-Bluff, in Hardin. CarBoniIFrerous.—(10.) Coal Measures—1. Shales, sandstones, and coal, of the Cumberland table-land. 9.) Mountain Limestone—3. Limestone of the escarpments of the Cumberland table-land; 2. Limestone of Newman’s Ridge, Lookout Mountain, etc.; 1. Upper limestones of Montgomery, Dickson, etc. Lower CarBonirerovs.—(8.) Szliceous Group.—s. Calcareo-siliceous and flinty rocks of the Highland Rim of Middle Tennessee; 2. Sand- stones of Stone and Pine Mountains, in Hawkins; 1. Sandstones in front of Montvale Springs. (7.) Black Slate—3. Black slate along the eastern base of Clinch Mountain, etc.; 2. Slate of the Highlands of Central Middle Tennessee ; 1. Black slate of the Tennessee River Valley, west. Devonian AND Upper Siturtan.—(6.) Dyestone and Gray Limestone Group.—4. Limestones of the Harpeth and Tennessee Rivers, west; 3. Limestone of Sneedville; 2. Shales, thin sandstones and dyestone of the base of the Cumberland, etc., East Tennessee; 1. Sandstones of Clinch and Powell’s Mountains: corresponding, in order, to Helderberg series, Niagara limestone, Clinton group, Gray Sandstone of New York. This is a protean group, provisionally adopted to include several dis- tinct formations. We apply in part the term dyestone to it, on account of the presence of this interesting iron ore among the strata of one of its divisions. Its rocks belong to the Upper Silurian and Devonian systems of geologists. In East Tennessee it isa group of sandstones, calcareous shales, in- eluding dyestone, and some limestone ; in Middle and West Tennessee, it is almost entirely limestone. In the former division, the following sub-groups occur : The Clinch Mountain Sandstone-—This, several hundred feet in thick- ness, is a light gray, generally thick-bedded sandstone, abounding at many points in fucords. It sometimes affords layers of conglomerate, the pebbles like small peas in size. The upper part at some points, in Hancock especially, is red and highly ferrugenous. This sandstone is the great protecting rock of many high ridges in northern East Tennessee; it caps, and, in most cases, rests against the southeastern side of the Bay’s Mountain ridges, the Devil’s Nose, etc., in Hawkins, Clinch Mountain, Newman’s Ridge, Powell’s Mountain, ete. Geology. 131 Its greatest development is perhaps in Clinch Mountain. In southern Kast Tennessee, it is unimportant, and rarely seen. 2. Shales, thin fine Sandstone, and Iron Ore-—This member, two or three hundred feet thick at some points, is composed of variegated shales, often calcareous, and including thin layers of brown and gray fine sandstones, often beautifully ripple-marked. The dyestone is imbedded in the shales, and generally occurs in one or two layers, etc. All these strata contain organic remains. 3. Sneedville Limestone.—At Sneedville, and several other points in Han- cock and Claiborne, a band of gray limestone, which perhaps will be found to be from one to two hundred feet in thickness, rests upon the last member. It occasionally affords interesting beds of fossil corals. In Middle and West Tennessee, this formation is almost wholly gray, or bluish-gray, limestone. Some of its strata are blue, others reddish, and many of them argillaceous. It is wanting along the eastern slope of the Central Basin, but appears again along its western and northwestern sides. It is here generally less than fifty feet in thickness, though sometimes more. Going westward, it thickens rapidly, and, becoming several hundred feet thick in Hardin, Decatur, etc., occupies the valley of the Tennessee in those counties. Its lowest member is the hydraulic limestone of which we have spoken. It affords, too, the marble of Henry, Benton, ete. Lower Siturtan.—(5.) Central Limestone and Shale Group.—s. Calcareous shales of Bay’s Mountain, etc.; 4. Red sandy limestone of the Knobs in Monroe, McMinn, etc.; 3. Beds of variegated and gray marble in Hawkins, Knox, etc.; 2. Blue shelly-limestone of many valleys in East Tennessee; 1. Blue limestone of the Central Basin, Middle Tennes- . see; corresponding in order to the Hudson River group, Trenton lime- stone, Black River limestone. The entire area within the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee is oc- cupied by nearly horizontal strata of blue limestones, in all, perhaps, from 800 to 900 feet in thickness, which belong to this formation. They are easily divided into two nearly equal members, which we have called, respectively, commencing with the lower, the Stones River and Nashville sub-groups. 1. The Stones River, or lower member, is a series of blue and dove-col- ored limestones, more or less cherty, not generally as argillaceous as those of the succeeding member, and often remaining thick-bedded when weathered ; it contains, however, several thin-bedded argillaceous divisions. | 2. The Nashville Member is blue argillaceous, more or less sandy, com- pact, and highly fossiliferous limestone, weathering, generally, into thin-bedded rough layers, often separated by seams of shaly matter. — The marble of Franklin is a local stratum in the topmost part of this member. These two sub-groups are distinctly separated by fossiliferous charac- ters. The first is equivalent, generally, to the Black River groups and lower Trenton, and the second to the Hudson River group, Utica slate, and upper Trenton, of New York. 132 Scientific Intelligence. In the eastern portion of the valley of Hast Tennessee, the correspond- ing rocks swell out to double, or perhaps to more than double the thick- ness they have in the Central Basin. Here, too, they may be divided, generally, into two sub-groups, of which the Stones River and Nashville are the western extensions. 1. The Lower Sub-group—five or six hundred feet thick—is a bed of blue, often knotty or spumous, limestone, containing many fossil shells of species (Maclurea magna, Orthis deflecta, etc.,) identical with those found in the Stones River sub-group. This division is often, in its lower part, interstratified with the gray magnesian limestone. 2. The upper sub-group is mostly a vast bed of calcareous, and more or less sandy shales. These are developed on a great scale in the Bay’s Mountain Ridges. They include, occasionally, thin layers of sand- stone, and are generally highly calcareous, having a sky-blue, rarely a dark-gray color, and weathering to a sandy gray or yellowish-gray, or, when more argillaceous, to a buff surface. The lower portion, es- pecially in Sullivan and Greene, affords fine dark, or even black, argil- laceous shales, which form long and frequently isolated “slate ridges.” The topmost portion in Hawkins is often reddish. A great band of these calcareous shales extends from the group of mountains mentioned above, down through Jefferson, Sevier, Blount, etc., becoming, however, less important in its southern extension. The most characteristic fossils are the linear serrated corals, called Graptolitide by geologists. They occur (both Graptolites and Dzplo- grapsus) nearly at all points. Among the shaly strata of this sub-group, especially in its lower portion, are several extensive interpolated beds, which have their maxi- mum development in different parts of East Tennessee. The most im- portant are the following: ; (a.) The gray marble, which lies at the base of the sub-group. (0.) The variegated marble, of which we have spoken. (c.) A dark gray, very ferruginous sandy limestone, with a red streak, and weathering into red ferruginous sandy and often porous masses. This bed, sometimes represented by many parallel ranges, commencing in Jefferson and Knox, extends to the Hiwassee, in the southeastern part of McMinn. It is heavily developed in Blount, Mon- roe, and McMinn, forming the red sandy “ knobs” of those counties. These beds are separated by shales, etc. Hereafter we shall present complete sections of them. Passing westward, the shales of the upper sub-group rapidly run into thin-bedded, argillaceous limestones, which, in the narrow valleys of the western portion of the valley of Hast Tennessee, are much like those of the Nashville series. (4.) Magnesian Limestone and Shale Group.—s. Limestone of Knox- ville; 2. Limestones and variegated shales of numerous valleys and ridges in East Tennessee; 1. Thin-bedded and many-colored sandstones of numerous sharp ridges in East Tennessee: corresponding to the Cal- ciferous sandstone of New York. This extensive formation—several thousand feet in thickness—pervades the greater part of the valley of East Tennessee. It is a great series of Geology. 133 sandstones, shales, and calcareous strata, but containing throughout more or less magnesian limestone. It consists of three members, or subordinate groups, as follows : 1. The Sandstone Member.—This—the lowest sub-group, many hundred feet in thickness—is made up mostly of brownish-red, sometimes pale greenish, smooth fine thin sandstones, abounding in fucordal remains, and occasionally approaching slate in character. The lower part of these thin sandstones, or slates, generally includes heavier layers of gray and variously colored sandstones, some of which are dark, others lighter with green points; some, too, fine-grained, others coarse and gritty. Occasionally, bands of dark gray magnesian limestone, and at some points calcareous slates occur, interstratified with the sandy layers. The hard sandstones of this member form many sharp, straght, roof- like, or “comby” ridges in East Tennessee. The Shale Member—This is a heavy sub-group—many hundred feet thick—of brownish-red, greenish, and buff, or variegated soft slates or shales. It often contains seams and beds of blue oolttic limestone, abounding in the remains of Trilobites, At some points the shales themselves furnish 7'rilobites, as well as Lingulw. This member occu- ples numerous vadleys, many of them rich and fertile, in East Tennes- see. Its superior part, interstratified with the blue oolzte and Trilobite limestone, gradually runs into the upper and following division. 3. The Limestone Member—tThis, too, is a heavy sub-group—perhaps not less than a thousand feet in thickness. It is generally heavy- bedded limestone throughout; the lower part is blue, often oolitic, and frequently striped with argillaceous seams; the middle strata are usu- ally dark gray, more or less sparry, and magnesian ; the upper, gray. cherty and likewise magnesian. Such at least is its typical character ; at some points these subdivisions are not easily recognized. Knoxville is mostly located on the upper portion, and interesting sections are ex- posed with the limits of the city. Many of the rounded cherty ridges of East Tennessee are composed of the same rocks. (3.) Chilhowee Sandstones and Shales —2. Quartzose sandstones of Chilhowee, of the French Broad River, etc, etc.; 1. Sandstones and sandy shales of Paint Mountain, etc.; corresponding to the lower beds of the Upper Mississippi. Age of the Potsdam sandstone, and often con- taining the Scolithus linearis of the New York beds. MerramorpHic.—(2.) Ocoee Conglomerates and Slates, (semi-metamor- phic.) —3. Conglomerates and slates of the Ocoee River; 2. Semi-talcose slates of Monroe, Blount, etc.; 1. Conglomerate and slates of the French Broad, and of the mountains in Sevier. (1.) Mica Slate Group—2. Mica slates of Ducktown; 1. Gneissoid rocks of Washington, Carter, and Johnson, etc. 9. Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Strata of Ohio —Dr. J.8. New- berry has given descriptions of several new fossil Carboniferous fishes in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, viii, 96. 10. Cretaceous Fossils of Nebraska—Messrs. F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M.D., have given in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia for April, descriptions of many species of Cretaceous Mol- luscan fossils from Nebraska. ~ 134 Scientific Intelligence. III. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, London, Vol, I, No. 1, 8vo, 1856. (Longmans, & Williams and Norgate.)—The Lin- nan Society, awaking to renewed activity, proposes “to issue four num- bers annually, as nearly as possible at definite intervals, containing papers on Natural History read before the Society, and not inserted in its [4to] ‘Transactions.’ The Zoological and Botanical papers will be separately paged, so that either section may be taken separately. The ‘Journal of the Proceedings’ for the present year will be sold to the public at 12 shil- lings for the entire Journal, or 8 shillings for either the Zoological or Bo- tanical section taken separately ; the separate numbers being charged 3s. for the whole, or 2s. for either section.” The first number was issued in March last. It contains for the botanical portion; 1. an extended paper, entitled, Remarks on the Botany of Madeira and Teneriffe, by Charles J. F. Bunbury. What appeared to the author as the most striking botani- cal features of these islands are summed up at the close, as follows :—of Teneriffe: (1.) “In the coast region, the remarkable forms of the Huphor- bia’ Canariensis, EL. piscatoria, Kleinia neriifolia, and Plocama pendula ; the social growth of the Artemisia argentea, covering great spaces of rocky and stony ground with its whitish foliage; the conspicuous abun- dance (especially on the Orotava side of the Island) of cultivated Date Palms and Dragon-trees; and in the ravines, the striking and peculiar forms of shrubby species of Rumex, Echium, Solanum, and Sonchus. (2.) In the woody region, the prevalence of trees of the Laurel type of foliage; the vast extent of ground occupied by the Erica arborea, and the surprizing size to which it grows in favorable localities; the abundance of Ferns and Hypnoid Mosses in the more damp and shaded situations, and of Cistinee and G'enistee on the dry and open grounds; and the noble form of the Canary Pine in the upper part of this zone. (38.) The great zone occupied by the Adenocarpus frankenioides above the region of trees, and that of the Cytisus nubigenus at a still higher level. “The striking botanical features of Madeira may be summed up thus: (1.) The tropical cultivation in the lower region, contrasted with the South-European or Mediterranean character of the native vegetation. (2.) The frequency, in that same region, of plants evidently or probably in- troduced, and belonging to very different countries. (3.) The abundance and variety of Ferns, more particularly indeed in the forest region, but also in the ravines at lower levels, and even down to the coast on the northern side. (4.) The great abundance of two large and conspicuous species of Sempervivum, especially in the ravines of the north side. (5.) The forests of Laurel-like trees; and (6.) The prevalence of Vacciniwm padifolium, Hrica arborea, and EH. scoparia, not only as undergrowth. in the forests, but almost entirely covering the upper mountain-region. The most remarkable negative characteristics of Madeira botany, as compared with that of Teneriffe, are, the absence of most of the peculiar and strik- ing forms belonging to the coast-region of the latter country, especially of the succulent Huphorbia, the Kleinia, and the Plocama ; the absence of Pines and Cisti, and the small number of shrubby Leguminosae.” Botany and Zoology. 135 «The famous Dragon-tree of Villa de Orotava, so well known through Humboldt’s description,” Mr. Bunbury informs us, “is still in existence ; a ruin indeed, but a noble ruin. Its foliage is still fresh and vigorous; but the tree has been much shattered, and has lost many branches within the last few years; and a gentleman who has long known it is of opinion that it will not last another century. By my measurement, the part that remains entire of the trunk is 30 feet round, that is, from edge to edge of the hollow, and the width across the hollow is 12 feet. This measure- ment was taken at 84 feet above the roots.” On some new species of Chamelanciee ; by Dr. C. F. Mrtsnzr.— This curious and most elegant group of Australian Myrtaceous plants, of which only 10 species were known to De Candolle in 1828, and distribu- ted in five genera, is here brought up to 121 species, comprised in eleven genera, And two more species are added in the next paper, viz: Notice of two apparently undescribed species of Genetyllis; by R. Kippist, with the first paragraph of which article the number closes. The second number, we learn, will contain a revision of Loganiacee by Mr. Bentham. The Zoological portion of the first number contains— : (1.) On the Katepo, a supposed poisonous spider of New Zealand ; by Tos. SHerman Ratpu. (2.) Remarks on some habits of Argyroneta aquatica; by Tuomas Batt, Prest. L. S. 3 (3.) Catalogue of Dipterous Insects of Singapore and Malacca, by A. R. Wattace, with descriptions of new species, by Francis WALKER. ts Note on a supposed new species of Pelopzeus ; by Eowarp Newman. 5.) On the Natural History of the Glow-worm; by the late Guo. © Newrort. A. G. 2. Origin of the Embryo im Plants.—Considerable progress has been made towards the settlement of the mooted points in embryogeny since this subject has been noticed in this Journal. The Schleidenian view was generally supposed to have been as nearly as possible disproved ; when, about a year and a half ago, Schacht made a remarkable commu- nication to the meeting of naturalists assembled at Berlin, which was afterwards published in the Regensberg Flora, and a French version of it was given in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. 3 of 4th ser., 1855. Remarking that the theory which maintains that the embryo originates within the apex of the pollen-tube inserted into the nucleus of the ovule, had then scarcely any partisan besides himself, he states that a preparation had been made by a young naturalist, M. Deecke, of such a nature as to silence forever the adversaries of that view !—a preparation in which a pollen-tube, detached from the young ovule of Pedicularis sylvatica, showed that it had produced in its extremity a cell which was nothing else than the first cell of the embryo, thus “putting an end to all discussion” on this hitherto controverted topic. Deecke had already published a figure of his preparation in the Memoirs of the Natural History Society of Halle, with a short account of it. Schacht, with his leave, now published another figure, which he pronounced to be “rigor-: ously exact.” This figure is reproduced in the Ann. Sci. Nat., above cited, along with others illustrating Schacht’s article; the whole of which 136 Scientific Intelligence. was afterwards appended to his Treatise on the Microscope, ed. 2, which is perhaps familiar to English readers in a translation made by Mr. Cur- rey, and published by Highley of London. Schacht’s statement immediately called out two notes, one by Hof- meister, in the Flora for the 7th May, 1855; the other by Mohl, in the Botanische Zeitung of the first of June; both are reproduced in the number of Annales des Sciences Naturelles, cited above. Both these ob- servers, after repeated examinations of the preparation in question, deny, in the most formal manner, that it shows what it was brought forward to prove, and also deny that Schacht’s figure of it is by any means a rigor- ously exact representation. Hofmeister further explains how Deecke and Schacht were, as he supposes, deceived by the appearance of the parts. To this Deecke has rejoined, in Bot. Zeitung, xiii, p. 657, (republished, with the figures, in Ann. Sc. Wat., vol. iv, [4th ser.] p. 58,) affirming the correctness of the figures in question, and that the preparation proves the embryo to originate from the pollen-tube. More recently, the able and indefatigable M. Tulasne, who made such capital embryological researches six or seven years ago, has returned to this subject; and the results of a new series of investigations, relating to several families of plants, were presented to the Academy of Sciences in November last, and were published, the text in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 4th ser., vol. iv, p. 65, &c., and the twelve admirable plates in later numbers of that volume. Their results entirely confirm M. Tu-’ lasne in the views formerly sustained by him, namely, that the embryonal vesicle, or in other words the first cell of the embryo, or of its suspensor, does not make its appearance until the pollen-tube has reached the sur- face of the embryo-sac, and that it originates in connexion with the inner face of the embryo-sac, to which it adheres at a point opposite or near that to which the extremity of the pollen-tube is applied externally. This view, while it goes against the idea of preformed free vesicles, loose in the sac, existing before anthesis or fecundation, and one of them, on being fertilized, becoming the embryo (which is the view of Brongniart, Mirbel, Amici, and especially of Hofmeister), and while it is strictly op- pre to the Schleidenian hypothesis,— i.e. that the pollen-tube itself ecomes or produces the embryo,—at the same time offers.a ready and probably a true explanation of the facts adduced by Schleiden, Schacht, é&c., indicating that what the latter have taken for the pollen-tube alone, with its extremity transformed into the nascent embryo, may actually consist of a suspensor originating within the sac, in juxtaposition with the apex of the pollen-tube applied to it without. As the case now stands, it appears most probable that to M. Tulasne belongs the honor of having shown how the embryo of Phanerogamous plants originates. Bn iy 3. Sexual Reproduction in Algw.—Pringsheim’s interesting paper up- on the sexual fecundation and the germination of Algz, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and briefly re- ferred to in the number of this Journal for September last (p. 277), will be found in a French version in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, ser. 4, vol, ili, p. 363, tab. 15. That the “horns” of Vaucheria act as antheridia, furnishing ‘ antherozoides’ which by penetration fertilize the spore while it is yet an amorphous mass, destitute of a cell-wall, is neatly shown. Botany and Zoology. 137 He also maintains that the true fecundated spores of the Floridew are those of the conceptacles; while the tetraspores belong to non-sexual reproduction, like that by buds. Bisexual reproduction is now known in every group of Algz except the Sperogyrew and the Desmidzacee, in which spores are formed by conjugation, and in Oscillaria and. its allies. A. G. 4, Martius: Flora Braziliensis: Fasc. xv, Sept. 1855.—This new part comprises, (1.) the Alstroemeriese, by A. Schenck, of Wurtzburg, with 2 plates; (2.) the Agavew, by Prof. von Martius himself, with a complete bibliography of Agave Americana, a detailed account of the uses to which it has been applied and of the products it yields; also an excursus on other Brazilian plants which furnish fibrous textile materials, all imbued with the profound learning and the large and genial views which dis- tinguish this eminent naturalist. (3.) The Xyridew, Mayacew, and Com- melinacee, by Prof. Seubert of Carlsruhe, with 16 plates. And lastly there are 7 additional Tabule physiognomice (tab. 42-48), of much interest and beauty, with four more pages of explanatory letter-press rela- ting to this part of the work. ‘These plates, with the accompanying text, will at length form a volume by itself, of unusual interest; one in which the peculiar powers of Dr. von Martius’ philosophical and exuberant mind, richly stored with the most various learning, as well as his almost unrivalled talents and advantages as an observer, are shown to great advantage. | The retirement of Dr. von Martius from the botanical chair, and from the administration of the Botanical Garden at Munich,—relieving him from many distracting labors and cares, begins to show good results, in the more energetic prosecution of the flora of the great empire of Brazil, —a work which we ardently hope the distinguished author may live fully to complete, and in the same thorough manner in which it has thus far been carried on. We have perused with great satisfaction M. De- Candolle’s genial and instructive (Votice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Martius: publiée a occasion de sa retraite des functions actives de Venseignement, in the Bibliotheque Universelle; and are prevented from republishing it in this Journal for want of room; and partly also from the consideration that the time most proper for even so well-deserved an eulogy has not arrived while the subject of it is yet, as we trust, only midway in his high scientific career. A. G. 5. Hrangois André Michauz, the veteran author of the orth Ameri- can Sylva, died suddenly of apoplexy, in November last, at his residence near Pontoise, France, aged about 86. There yet survive some in this country to whom he was personally known, either in his first visit, in 1802, or in his second, in 1806, during which he travelled widely over the United States, and collected the materials of the work which has as- sociated his name for all time with the trees of North America. It is interesting to know that he preserved his strength and activity to the last; even the last day of his life was in part devoted to planting in his grounds American trees of his own rearing. He was accustomed to walk from Pontoise up to Paris, a distance of nineteen miles, and back again the same day, at least once every month, even within the last year. The SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII. NO. 64,—JULY, 1856. 18 138 Scientific Intelligence. writer of this notice had the pleasure of passing a day with him, a few years ago, at the house of a common friend, and retains a vivid recollec- tion of the tall form of this octogenarian, perfectly unbent by age, of his corporeal vigor, still equal apparently to that of most men of half his years, and of his vivacious and instructive conversation, which exhibited no decline of mental power, much of it carried on, with remarkable cor- reciness and facility on his part, in a language which he can have had little occasion to use for almost half a century. re Cady 6. Prof. Wm. H. Harvey—The numerous friends of this distinguished botanist in this country will be pleased to learn that, during his _still-pro- longed absence upon his Australian and South Pacific explorations, he has been elected to the chair of Botany in Trinity College, Dublin, va-_ cated last year by the translation of Professor Allman to the University — ef Edinburgh. Be 7. On three new Ferns from California and Oregon; by Dante. C. Haron.—(1.) Polypodium pachyphyllum. Coriaceum late oyatum fere ad rachim pinnitifidum, laciniis oppositis glabris lmeari-oblongis, margine crassiore ac stramineo, obtusis crenatis ad basim angustioribus, inferiori- bus minoribus disjunctis basi inferiori cuneatis, superioribus fructiferis, rachi stipitique nudis stramineis crassis, costa prominente, venulis 4—5 frequenter sub margine anastomosantibus infima sorifera, soris margine remotis magnis rotundis etate confluentibus. Has. On trees, sometimes 150-200 feet from the ground, near Fort Orford, South-western Oregon. Lieut. A. V. Kautz, U.S. A. Rootlets aerial, frond very thick, evergreen, 12—15 inches high, and nearly half as wide. (2.) Polypodium Glycyrrhiza.—Pellucidum membranaceum, fronde jato-lanceolata profunde pinnatifida, laciniis alternis glabris lineari-lanceo- jatis in longum acumen productis acute serratis ad basim dilatatis, rachi pallida gracili, venulis 3-4 liberis infima sorifera, soris lberis rotundis margine remotis. Haz. On trees in South-western Oregon. veut. A. V. Kautz, U.S.A. Rootlets aerial, having a sweet flavor like that of liquorice, frond an- nual 12-18 inches high, 4—6 inches wide. (3.) Allosorus mucronutus.—Cespitosus coriaceus triangulari-ovatus bipinnatus, pinnis sub-oppositis, pinnulis mucronatis mferioribus trifoli- atis, sterilibus planis ovatis, fertilibus angustis margine revolutis, rachi rigida purpurascente, caudice denso paleis linearibus obtecto. Has. Clefts of rocks in the hills near the bay of San Francisco, Cali- fornia. Major A. B. Haton, U.S. A. Fronds 2-6 inches high, 6-20 lines wide. A. andromedefolius is larger, and has emarginate pinnules and a creeping caudex. 8. On a new species of Dinornis ; by Prof. Own, (Proc. Zool. Soe., Athenzeum, No. 1485.)—Mr. W. Mantell having provisionally depos- ited the large collection of fossil bones, with which he has returned from New Zealand, in the British Museum, the Keeper of the Mineralogy re- quested Prof. Owen to determine the bones and classify them according to their species, in the course of which work the Professor has found the remains of a species of large wingless bird, hitherto undescribed and un- Botany and Zoology. 139 known to science. Of this species, which on account of its extraordinary proportions, he proposes to call Dinornis elephantopus, or the elephant- footed dinornis, Prof. Owen has recomposed one entire limb, including the femur, tibia and fibula, tarso-metatarsus and the phalanges or toe- joints complete of each of the three toes. The descriptions and compari- sons of these bones formed the subject of his present communication to the Zoological Society. The anatomical details were minutely entered into, the general result being that, whereas the bones of the leg equalled or surpassed in strength and thickness those of the Dinornis giganteus, they were much shorter, the metatarse being only half the length of that bone in the giant species. The elephant-footed wingless bird must have presented the most massive frame of any known species of* its class. Its limbs, from the indications of the muscles inserted into the bones, must have been proportionally much shorter, more powerful, and more bulky than in any other bird. From the details of the tables of comparative admeasurement we select the following :—Dznornis elephantopus, length of the thigh-bone (femur), 13 inches; breadth of its upper end, nearly 6 inches; length of the leg-bone (tibia), 2 feet; breadth of its upper end, 74 inches; length of the ancle-bone (metatarsus), 94 inches; breadth of its lower end, 54 inches; least circumference, 64 inches. The length of the metatarsus in the Dinornis giganteus is 184 inches, the breadth of its lower end 54 inches. The bones of the above defined extraordinary new species of Dinornis are in the most perfect state of preservation. At the present stage of his examination of Mr. Mantell’s collection, Prof. Owen suspects that it may include an almost entire skeleton of the bird, to the reconstruction of which in our national museum he looks forward. The author believes that the original range or locality of the Dinornis elephantopus was a limited one, unless at the period when the species flourished the geographical character of the middle island of New Zea- land was widely different from what it now is. No trace of this species of Dinornis had ever reached the Professor from any of the numerous localities in the north island, from which remains of many other extinct wingless birds had been from time to time transmitted to him, nor had Mr. W. Mantell ever found bones of the Dinornis elephantopus, except at one locality of the middle island, viz., at Ruamoa, three miles south of the point called First Rocky Head in the new Admiralty map of the island. 9. A new species of Turkey from Mexico; (ibid.)}—Mr. Goutp exhib- ited a specimen of turkey which he had obtained from Mexico, and which differed materially from the wild turkey of the United States. At the same time this turkey so closely resembled the domesticated turkey of Europe that he believed naturalists were wrong in attributing its origin to the United States species. The present specimen was therefore a new species, and he proposed to call it Meleagris Mexicana, which, if his theory was correct, must henceforth be the designation of the common turkey. ¢ 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Iv. ASTRONOMY. 1. New Planets—The 88th asteroidal planet is named Leda, and the 39th is Letitia. A fortieth asteroidal planet was discovered by M. Her- mann Goldschmidt, at Paris, March 31, 1856. Its appearance was that of a star of the 9-10th magnitude, and its place March 31, 1856, 108 5m m.t. Paris, was R. A. 135 18m 308, and S. Decl. 0° 2’—Gould’s Astr. Journal, No. 92. 2. Elements of ithe Planet Letitia, (39.)\—The following elements of Letitia are computed by Mr. George Riimker from three normal places, Feb. 9:0, March 3°5 and March 26°5. Epoch, 1856, April 0:0. Mean anomaly, - - - 165° 25’ 48/8 fae Eqx. — Long. of perihelion, = - - O 39 44 5 1856.0. me 6 vase, node, = '< - 157/323 40°32 Inclination, . - - 10 .28° 9°38 Angle of excentricity, - - 6 40 54 2 Log. semi axis-major, - - 0:442181 Gould’s Astr. Journal, No. 92. V. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. 1. Ozone, (L’Institut, No. 1169.)—M. Scovurrrren has reported the results of some experiments showing that atmospheric ozone is formed —Ist, by the electrization of the oxygen secreted by plants; 2d, by the electrization of the oxygen that escapes from water; 3d, by the electri- zation of the oxygen disengaged in chemical changes; 4th, by electric phenomena acting on the oxygen of the atmosphere. He states that in a series of experiments varied and frequently repeated, he has found that plants as well as water furnish ozone constantly to the air during the day; that this phenomenon ceases during the night, and also when the plants or water are removed from the action of direct light; that the action is suspended even by a diffuse light; that ozone is not produced if the water has been boiled and distilled, neither if the plants are put into this. boiled water ; and this holds if the water is ordinary boiled water, not distilled, if a film of oil be added to prevent the absorption of atmospheric air. Moreover ozone is formed also when the water or the plants are enclosed in a glass globe suspended by a silk cord far above the ground. He further announces that he is able to demonstrate by rigorous ex- periments that nascent oxygen is ozone, and that it is owing to the prop- erties which oxygen acquires by positive electrization that it can form combinations which are impossible with ordinary pure oxygen ; and also that ozone forms in the atmosphere under the influence of electric cur- rents, continued and invisible, or by a succession of more or less powerful sparks. The last has been mentioned by many observers. Atmospheric ozone, according to M. Wolf, of Berne, is the cause of dis- ease. He has already noted that in 1855, there was a remarkable paral- lelism between the variations in the quantity of ozone and the intensity of an epidemic dysentery at Berne during the months of August and September. The energy of the epidemic appeared to him to have aug- mented or diminished with the quantity of ozone. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 2. On Ozone in the Atmosphere ; by W. B. Rocers, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 319.)—In making his observations, Prof. Rogers uses the prepared paper and scale of colors of Schénbein’s Ozonometer, which, although imperfect as a means of comparison, is the best for practical use yet devised. The slip of paper is suspended out of doors in a box open only at the bottom, so as to be shielded from the rain and snow, and from strong light, at the same time that it is freely exposed to the air. Usually, it is allowed to remain in this position for twelve hours, when it is removed for observation, and a fresh slip substituted ; but when there are indications of a great prevalence of ozone, the test is examined, and renewed at shorter intervals. On comparing the recorded observations for the past six weeks, Prof. Rogers has been struck with what seems to be a fixed relation between the direction of the aerial current and the amount of ozone prevalent at the time. As long as the wind continued to come from Eastern or South- ern points, he found the ozone to be nearly or quite absent, but when- ever the current has changed to West or Northwest, the test-paper un- failingly indicated its presence in considerable force. The rapidity and amount of this effect has always been greatest when the wind has hauled suddenly to West and North, and has blown violently, but it has contin- ued to manifest itself, although with slow abatement, as long as the cur- rent held from this quarter. To illustrate this effect, Prof. Rogers referred to examples within the present month, (February.) Thus, on the 11th, the wind being light from WbyS and SW, there was no indication of ozone, and during the morning of the 12th, the wind continuing from the same general quarter, furnished a like negative result. About 1 Pp. m., however, the eurrent changed suddenly to NW, with a snow squall, after which it~ continued to blow in gusts in the same direction until late at night. Two hours after this change, viz: at 3 Pp. M., the test-paper was found to be charged with ozone to the amount of 7% of the maximum of Schén- bein’s scale, and at 10 p. m., a second paper which had been freshly sub- stituted for the former, gave 38. Again, on the 15th and 16th, the wind blowing from §, and Sby W, showed no ozone; retaining the same general direction through the night of the 16th, and part of the following morning, it gave a like negative result. About 11 a.m. of the 17th, the wind hauled towards West, and about 1 Pp. M., it began to blow strong from WbyN, after which it continued gusty from this quarter and NW until late next day. The test-paper hung out at 9 a.M., of the 17th, was found at 1 p.M., or two hours after the change, to present ozone amounting to 33, ; and another substituted at that time, showed at 5 p.M., or five hours after, a change measuring more than 8). Although the observations thus far made have indicated the prevalence of ozone in connection with winds from W and NW, and its absence in the case of those moving from the opposite quarters, they have been continued far too short a time, and have been too local, to warrant any positive inference of a general kind. The development of ozone in the air being probably dependent on temperature, relative dryness, solariza- tion, electricity and other physical conditions which are perpetually changing, we cannot hope to read precise laws in regard to its production 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. and disappearance without long-continued and varied observations. Yet, from the marked contrast in respect to moisture, and other properties be- tween our great continental and our oceanic winds, it seems not improba- ble that some such opposite relations to ozone as above indicated may be found actually to obtain. 3. The Tides at Ponape, or Ascension Island of the Pacific Ocean— lat. 6° 55’ N, long. 158° 25’ E; by L. H. Gunicx, M.D., (communicated for this Journal.)—This island rests under the opprobrium of seamen for having tides scarcely at all conformed to those of other lands, and governed by no apparent laws. It is easy however to prove that the tides of Ascension Island conform more nearly to the requisitions of the Newtonian theory than those of many other portions of our globe. I would first direct attention to the fact that this island is situated far from any body of land, or even of extended reef, which might have de- flecting and perturbing influences on the tidal waves. A glance at the map, shows that the few coral groups, east and west, could not have as much effect on the tide waves of this part of the ocean as so many posts set up in the channel of the Mississippi would have on the current of that river. True, each post would create its own immediate ripples and slight eddies; but the pouring flood would not thereby be m the least affected. This “‘ Micronesian” portion of the Pacific, extending from the Mille Isl- ands to Pelew, has to the East of it the most extended open ocean in the whole circumference of the globe, with the exception of a line in the Southern Hemisphere ; so that if the tides ever conform to the attractive powers of the sun and moon, they should here. It is interesting also to notice the fact that the natives of this island know well the tidal laws, (though, of course, not their rationale) and by the appearances of the moon can determine before hand all the most important changes it undergoes; and that they have also many fixed ‘ terms for the different times and depths of tide. In accordance, therefore, with the usual law, our spring tides come at the syzygies. The tides in general lag about 30° behind the time of the luminaries’ reaching their meridians. At the full and change, the tide is invariably highest at about 2 o’clock of morning and evening—which is therefore the “ Establishment” for this island. When the moon is in quadrature we familiarly say we have “ half tides”, with but little varia- tion, though there is always a small lunar tide at about 84. M. or P. M., and often there are several slight perturbations in the course of a few hours, that seem anomalous, but can well be referred to the various aeci- dental causes from winds and currents that may readily affect the waters while other influences upon them are so nearly neutralizing each other. As usual, every alternate tide is the highest;—in summer, when the sun is in northern declination, the night tides are the largest, and in winter, the day tides. The height of the highest spring tides is about five feet. The presumption is very probable that the tides are equally uniform through the most if not all of the Micronesian Islands. It is much to be desired that reports should be made and published by the intelligent mis- sionary observers now occupying several points in these ranges, so that we may soon have an accurate map of co-tidal lines for Micronesia, if not for Polynesia and all Oceanica. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 4. Ona peculiar case of Color Blindness ; by Joun Tynvatt, F.RS., &c., (Phil. Mag., May, 1856.)—A case of color blindness has been re- cently brought under my notice by Mr. White Cooper, of so singular a character that I think even the brief description of it which the pressure of other duties permits me to give will not be without interest to the readers of the Philosophical Magazine. Out of eleven hundred and fifty-four cases examined by Dr. George Wilson of the University of Edinburgh, and recorded by him in his truly interesting and valuable work on Color Blindness, only one instance was found in which the sufferer was aware of the loss he had sustained. This was the case of a medical practitioner in Yorkshire, who in Novem- ber, 1849, was thrown from his horse. “ After rallying from the collapse which immediately succeeded the accident, he suffered from severe pain in the head, delirium, mental excitation approaching almost to mania, loss of memory, and other symptoms of cerebral disturbance... . . On recovering sufficiently to notice distinctly objects around him, he found his perception of colors, which was formerly normal and acute, had be- come both weakened and perverted, and has since continued so... . . Flowers have lost more than half their beauty for him, and he still recalls the shock which he experienced on first entering his garden after his re- covery, at finding that a favorite damask rose had become in all its parts, petals, leaves, and stem, of one uniform dull color; and that variegated flowers, such as carnations, had lost their characteristic tints.” The case of Captain C., which I have to describe, is one of these rare instances. The sufferer is a seaman, and ten or twelve years ago was ac- customed, when time lay heavy on his hands, to occupy it by working at embroidery. Being engaged one afternoon upon a piece of work of this description, and anxious to finish a flower (a red one, he believes), he prolonged his labors until twilight fell, and he found it difficult to select the suitable colors. To obtain more light he went into the companion, or entrance to the cabin, and there continued his needlework. While _thus taxing his eyes, his power of distinguishing the colors suddenly van- ished. He went upon deck, hoping that an increase of light would re- store his vision. In vain. From that time to the present he has remained color blind. My first examination of Captain C. took place in the house of Mr. Cooper. Being furnished with specimens of Berlin wool, such as that with which the patient had been accustomed to work, I placed before him a skein which he at once, and correctly, pronounced to be blue. For this color he has a keen appreciation, and I have never known him make a mistake regarding it. Two bundles of worsted, one a light green and the other a vivid scarlet, were next placed before him: he pronounced them to be both of the same color; a difference of shade was perceptible, but both to him were drab. A green glass and a red glass were placed side by side between him and the window: he could discern no difference between the colors. A very dark green he pronounced to be black; the purple covering of the chairs were also black; a deep red rose on the _wall of the room was a mere blotch of black; fruit, partly of a bright red and partly of a deep green, were pronounced to be of the same uni- form color. A cedar pencil and a stick of sealing-wax placed side by 144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. side were nearly alike; the former was rather brown, the latter a drab. Time, I found, made a difference: slate color and red were placed side by side; on first looking at them Captain C. thought them different shades of the same color, but after looking at them for half a minute even this difference of shade disappeared. By the production of subjective effects, such as looking long at an object through a colored glass, and then re- moving the latter, his judgment of colors could also be made to vary in a slight degree. My second examination of Captain C. took place in the theatre of the Royal Institution; and on the day he called upon me I happened to be using the electric light, rendered continuous by Duboscq’s lamp. A por- tion of the light was permitted to pass through a bright green glass and was received upon a screen; no change of color was perceived: the space on which the green light fell was merely a little less intensely illuminated than the remaining portion of the screen. Lycopodium was shaken upon glass: the electric light looked at through such a glass gives, as is known, a series of brilliantly colored rings: to Captain C., however, no color was manifest, merely light and obscure rings following each other in succes- sion. A spectrum was cast upon the screen in which all the prismatic colors shone vividly ; to Captain C. only two colors were manifest, namely, blue and whitish-yellow. The outline of the spectrum was the same to him as to me; all that gave me light gave him light also; but in his case, the red, orange, and green were so modified as to produce the uni- form impression of whitish-yellow. In some cases of color blindness, where the sufferer confounds red with green, it is difficult to say whether he takes the red for a green or the green for a red. In the present case neither of these expresses the fact; neither red nor green is seen, but both of them are reduced to a color different from either. Captain C. assured me, that, previous to the circumstance related at the commencement, he was a good judge of colors, so that in pronoune- ing upon any color he has an aid from memory not usually possessed by the color blind. Indeed I had myself an opportunity of reviving his im- pression of red. A glass of this color was placed before his eyes while he stood close to the electric lamp: on establishing the light, he at once exclaimed, “that is red!” He appeared greatly delighted to renew his acquaintance with this color, and declared that he had not seen it for several years. The glass was then held near the light while he went to a distance, but in this case no color was manifest; neither was any color seen when a gas-lamp was regarded through the same glass. The intense action due to proximity to the electric light appeared necessary to pro- duce the effect. “You gave the eye a dram,” observed a gentleman to whom I described the case: the figure appears to be a correct one. Cap- tain C.’s interest in this experiment was increased by the fact, that the Portland light, which he has occasion to observe, has been recently changed from green to red, but he has not been able to recognize this change. ‘The fare in the fore-cabin of a vessel of his own which he now commands happens to be sixpence, and he is often reminded by the pas- sengers that he has not returned their change. The reason is, that he confounds a sixpence with a half-sovereign, both being to him of the same color. A short time ago he gave a sovereign to a waterman, believing it to be a shilling. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 It was my intention to make a guess at the cause of color blindness in the case above described; but guesses, without the means of verifying them, are so unsatisfactory, and so apt to produce fruitless discussion, that for the present at least I will confine myself to the statement of the facts. Two other cases of a different nature were also brought under my no- tice by Mr. Cooper, and may, on account of their rarity, be worthy of a brief reference. The first is that of a little girl, about seven years old, the development of whose eyes had been arrested before birth. The child’s sight, however, though imperfect, was sufficient to enable her to distinguish colors with accuracy. When the spectrum was displayed before her, she ran her fingers promptly over the colors and named them correctly. She could also read large print. The phenomena of irradiation presented them- selves to her as they did to me; an incandescent platinum wire became thicker as she receded from it. As far as I could judge, the retina was perfectly healthy. I placed her within a foot of the coal-points of the electric lamp, and establishing the current, allowed the full splendor of the light to fall upon her eyes: she never even winked, but looked steadily into the light, and stated that she did not feel the slightest inconvenience. This perhaps was due to the partial opacity of the humors of the eye. The position of the iris in her case was marked by a few gray spots, and the pupil had no definite boundary. The eyes were, as might be expected, out of all proportion with the growth of the child: the arrestation of development extended to the teeth also, which caused the child to appear much older than she really was. She was very intelligent; and her mother, who accompanied her, was a healthy intelligent woman, with fine brown eyes. She stated to me, that neither in her own nor her hus- band’s family did a case of the kind ever occur; and yet she had four. ehildren, and the whole of them, without exception, were afflicted in a similar manner. The second case is that of a distinguished artist, also sent to me by _Mr. Cooper. Several months ago he noticed, on looking at any distant point of light, a whitish luminosity spreading round the point, and first observed this appearance on the occasion of rubbing his right eye some- what severely. As time advanced, the luminosity merged into a series of colored rings which encircled the luminous point; and as these were be- coming brighter and larger, his fears of the ultimate blindness of the eye became excited. He had consulted several eminent oculists, and had, I believe, been subjected to severe treatment, on the supposition that the retina was the seat of the malady. The colored curves were not perfect eireles. I placed Mr. 8. upon his knees on the floor, and caused him to look upward at the electric lamp: in this position the upper portion of the pupil was shaded by the eyelid, and the colored rings totally disap- peared. I then caused him to stand upon a table and to look down upon the lamp: in this position the under portion of the pupil was shaded by the lid, and the colors were displayed in all their brilliancy. Mr. S.’s left eye was totally free from all defects of this kind. I shook a little ly- copodium on glass, and presented it before his left eye. The system of rings this revealed to his good eye was precisely similar to those pre- sented to the other. The lycopodium rings were smaller, but in other SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIJ, NO. 64.—JULY, 1856. 19 146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. respects the same as those of the right eye, with the exception of the divergence of the latter from the circular form mentioned above. I ven- tured to express my doubts to Mr. 8. as to the retina being the seat of the disease, and to comfort him with the hope that the augmentation of the rings in brilliancy and magnitude pointed rather to the diminution than to the increase of malady. I will leave it to physiologists to say what possible particles within the humors of the eye could act the part of the spores of lycopodium without the eye; but I entertain very little doubt that it is from the presence of such particles, a thin film, or some equivalent optical cause, and not from any affection of the retina, that the effects observed by Mr. S. arise. If this be the case, it simply shows how necessary a knowledge of physics is to medical men. I now regret that want of time prevented me from entering further upon the examina- tion of the case last referred to. ° With reference to the case of Captain C., Mr. Cooper makes the fol- lowing remarks :—“ In this case the symptoms are clearly referable to the intense strain to which the eyes were subjected for a long period, and un- der unfavorable circumstances—a strain beyond endurance, and which seems to have deprived the retina of the power of appreciating impres- sions, Such a condition is little amenable to treatment. After the Great Exhibition of 1851, instances came under my notice in which the sensi- bility of the retina was temporarily blunted by the excitement to which it was exposed in that brilliant scene. Here the sensibility to impressions of colors was only suspended, and gradually returned; but it is to be feared, that, in the case narrated by Professor Tyndall, it may be regarded as extinguished: the vibrations of the colored rays produce no responsive action in the nervous fibrillee.” 5. Information to Students visiting Hurope, (in a letter to the Editors from Paris, France, dated March 1st, 1856.)—As much time is lost by many American students who come abroad for the purpose of pursu- ing scientific studies from not knowing exactly to what point first to direct their steps, will you permit one of your old friends and readers to give some of the results of his own observations in regard to the scientific advantages of Europe, and especially of this great Capitol. Leaving home without much accurate information in regard to the different schools, and the times at which Lectures commence, two or three months may be lost by the student in visiting Edinburgh, London, and the German Insti- tutions, before he arrives at Paris and finds that this is the great scien- tific as well as the political and fashionable centre of Europe. ‘There is indeed at London an excellent school of science the Museum of Economic Geology in Jermyn St. But the lectures are not arranged in such a way as to be most advantageous to a student who starts from home already - tolerably well acquainted with the general principles of the sciences which he wishes to study. The winter course commences with lectures on Chemistry and Metallurgy combined with laboratory practice about the 1st of October, But the Lectures on Mineralogy and Geology do not begin till the middle of February. The expense of living in London is also great, and at the school the charges though not high for a British Institution will make quite a serious inroad upon the purse. Thus every course of lectures costs the occasional student $20, and the use of the laboratory $50 per term of three months. If this is no objection, the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 student will find here, an admirably well conducted laboratory, and if he desire to confine his attention to chemistry alone, perhaps he could not do better than to remain in London, as there is no city in the world where this science is pursued with more ardor and success, and he will moreover have the further opportunity in the course of a winter’s residence of hear- ing the lectures of many celebrated men, such as Mr. Faraday, Mr. Brande, Prof. Miller, and others. But if he design to pursue Mineralogy and Ge- ology also, the student will observe that the lectures on these subjects do not begin till the middle of February, and thus much time will be lost. In Germany he will find particular schools celebrated for this or that speciality in science, but hardly any, where all are taught by men of equal ability. | To have at his command scientific advantages, facilities of all kinds during the whole of the winter, it is advisable for the student to come at once to Paris. The French are eminently eclectic. Without always taking the lead in the path of discovery, they have yet a wonderful talent for system and arrangement, and a most happy and lucid way of commu- nicating their knowledge: this is a national characteristic. It is stamped upon their language, and accounts for the great superiority of their text- books, compared with those of all other people. No where in the world ean there be found as clear and lucid an exposition of the principles of all the sciences as at Paris. Let the student arrive about the Ist of November in a Havre Packet, and establish himself in comfortable lodgings, somewhere on the south side of the Seine, in the neighborhood of the great schools. These may be had with board, for $5—7 per week. On or about the 15th of Novem- ber, lectures begin at the “ Ecole des Mines,” the “Sorbonne,” the “ Jardin des Plantes,” a little later at the “Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers,” and the “Collége de France.” The Ecole des Mines has many of the most celebrated men among its professors, and its course it is well known is most thorough and exact; but admission to it is not always easy, and _ the student should not attempt it, unless he proposes to remain for the whole term of three years. It is perhaps also a better place to become acquainted with practical mining, than to acquire a knowledge of general principles, and a liberal scientific training. Let the student rather attach himself to particular schools for particular studies. For Analytical Chem- istry, let him enter some one of the excellent private laboratories, of which he will see notices pasted up all over this part of Paris, and at the same time follow the lectures of M. Balard, the celebrated discoverer of bromium, and an admirable lecturer, or those of his colleague, M. Dumas at the Sorbonne. For Agricultural Chemistry let him resort to M. Boussingault, at the “Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.” On par- ticular subjects he will find admirable lectures at the Collége de France, like those of M. Déville, this winter on volcanoes. If he wish to acquire a thorough knowledge of rocks and minerals, let him follow the lectures of M. Cordier and Dufrénoy respectively at the Jardin des Plantes, or rather let him follow the “Cours Pratiques d’Histoire Naturelle” of the Garden, conducted by the Assistant Professor of this magnificent establishment, and which promises to become one of the most important of the scientific advantages of Paris, especially to foreigners. Indeed it is to the Jardin des Plantes, that the student must chiefly resort for a combination of all 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the facilities required for the successful study of the natural sciences.. We are apt to suppose in America that it is nothing more than a great botan- ical and zoological garden. This is a mistake, its true name is the “Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle,” and it is,a magnificent establishment, devoted to the culture of every branch of scientific knowledge connected with the earth and its inhabitants. It has been rendered illustrious by the learned labors of Buffon, Cuvier and a host of other distinguished men. Besides the grand galleries of Anatomy and Botany, there is a magnifi- cent gallery of Mineralogy and Geology, all of them situated in a beau- tiful garden devoted to the Horticultural, Botanical, and Zoological part of the establishment. There are lectures delivered gratis, upon Chemistry by Frémy, Electricity by Becquerel, Geology by Cordier, Mineralogy by Dufrénoy, and on other subjects by men equally celebrated, such as D’Or- bigny and St. Hilaire. And for the purpose of giving a more thorough and complete sort of instruction than can ever be conveyed by ordinary lec- tures, the “ Cours Pratiques d’Histoire Naturelle” have been established, or “ Repetitions de Minéralogie, de Geologie, de Botanique, et de Zoologie, avec manipulations et nombreux exercises 4 Vaide d’instruments et d’echantillons,” with charges for the whole of the four courses $25, for one set of lectures $6, for more than one $5 each. Or should the student wish for more special instruction still than this, he can obtain it on any branch of Natural Science for 5/r. or $1 per lesson from any of the Assistants at the Jardin des Plantes, accompanied with the free use and examination of instruments and specimens, and what perhaps is of more advantage, a thorough initiation under their eye into all the curios- ities and treasures of these vast beautiful and costly collections, in many respects probably the most complete that can be found. It will be seen therefore by the student, that in Paris, he can have the command of all possible advantages for the prosecution of scientific studies, most of them gratis, and the rest’ at a moderate price. To this should be added the immense advantage of the attainment of the French language, and what is of more consequence, an opportunity of seeing the practical working of the French government, at the present moment a perfect despotism, but controlling a people who are the most democratic in the world, and also of gaining an insight into the complicated system of European politics, unfortunately so little understood in America, but which it is of no small importance to every American citizen to comprehed. Should more particular information be wished in regard either to the Museum of Economic Geology, London, or the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, it can be obtained by addressing Mr. Trenham Reeks, Museum Economic Geology, Jermyn St., London, or Messrs. Charles D’Orbigny and J. A. Hu- gard, ‘‘ Galerie de Mineralogie du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris,” all of whom are exceedingly obliging and affable gentlemen. 1.R.P. 6. Geographical Society at Paris, (Ath., No. 1485.)—The Geographical Society at Paris, in its first annual meeting for 1856 (which took place on the 5th of April), awarded its prize for the most important discovery during the last year to Dr. Heinrich Barth. The next prize, of a golden medal, was adjudged to Mr. E. G. Squier, of the United States, for his Central American researches.—A great deal of interest was created by the reading of a letter from M. de Bonpland to one of the members. The Nestor of French travellers and naturalists announces in it his inten- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 tion to return to Paris and to his old lodgings in the Rue du Mont Tha- bor,—only, however, in order to deliver to the Museum his collections and manuscripts, and then to return forever to his plantation in Uruguay. M. de Bonpland is now eighty-three years of age. 7. A Table showing the times of opening and closing of the Mississippi River, the first and last arrival and departure of boats, the number of arrivals, dc., for the years 1837 to 1855, inclusive; by T. S. Parvin, Muscatine, Iowa. t rie 3 : Sa 3. e es 8 a ® 3 ae 5-2 : : ei = Bt ok 3 63 “8 Set ee 3 se nagieed or we 2 La A=] om ci ol Ta BS RO oe len a 2 2 RS 1837 Dec. 7.|Jan. 30, 1838 Dec. 9. 1838 |Mar. 24.|Mar. 30./Nov. 10.|Dec. 4, 53 |Mar. 30./Nov. 7. 1839 |Feb. 20.|Mar. 8.|Nov. 24.\Jan. 15,1840] 78 |Mar. 11.|Dec. 11. 321 38 1840 |Feb. 29.;Mar. 1.)Nov. 22.|Dec. 31. 45 |Mar. 3.)Nov. 25. 339 35 1841 |Mar. 1.)Mar.13.|Nov. 27.\Jan. 3, 1842} 60 |Mar. 15./Dec. 20. 314 29 1842 |Feb. 28.)Mar. 3.|Nov. 18.|Nov. 26. 56 |Mar. 5 |Nov. 23. 420 39 1843 |Apr. 8.)Apr. 16.)Nov. 30./Jan. 23, 1844)133 |Apr. 12.|Nov. 27, 449 36 1844 |Feb. 23.|Feb. 27.|Nov. 24.|Dec. 27. 31 |Feb. 29.\Dec. 8. 610 34 1845 |Feb. 18.|Feb. 22.;Nov. 26.;Dec. 1. 52 |Feb. 25.|Nov. 26. 630 37 1846 |Jan. 29.|Feb. 8.)Nov.26./Jan. 6,1847| 72 |Feb. 8.Dec. 2. 620 33 1847 |Mar. 19.|Mar. 23.|Nov. 26.| Dec. 15. 62 |Mar. 25.) Nov. 27. 605 1848 |Feb. 16.;Mar. 1.)Nov. 9.|Dec. 15. 60 |Feb. 23.|Dec. 3. 580 to Oct. 1849 |Feb. 13.|/Feb. 17.|Dec. 6.|Dec. 17. 60 |Feb. 14.|/Dec. 6. 649 1850 |Feb. 19.|Feb. 23.|Dec. 3.\Jan. 30,1851) 63 |Feb. 27.;Dec. 2. 1851 |Feb. 21.|Mar. 9.|/Dec. 13.|Dec. 16. 22 |Feb. 26.|Dec. 12. 672 1852 |Feb. 24.|Mar. 8.|Nov. 19.|/Dec. 18. 70 |Mar. 5.'Dec. 13. 714 1853 |Feb. 25.|Mar. 3.|\Dec. 2.|Dec. 31. 69 |Mar. 7.|Dec. 11. 758 1854 |Mar. 1.|Mar. 5.|Dee. 5./Jan. 22,1855} 60 |Mar. 5./Jan. 19, 1855/1064 1855 (Mar. '7.|Mar. 30.'\Dec. 10.'Dec. 26. 49 'Mar. 14.|Dec. 15. 1359 8. Chemical Technology or Chemistry in its applications to arts and manufactures ; by Dr. Epmunp Ronaxps and Dr. THomas Ricwarpson; with which is incorporated Dr. Knapr’s “Technology” illustrated with four hundred and thirty-three engravings on wood and two colored and four plain plates. 2d Ed., vol.i; in two parts containing Fur. anp rts Apprications. H. Bailhiere: London and New York, 1855.—We have before taken pleasure in calling the attention of our readers to the Library of Illustrated Standard Scientific works of M. Bailliere. This edition of Drs. Ronald’s and Richardson’s work on Fuel and its applications is in fact a new book. The general order of the subjects discussed is un- changed ; but the quantity of new matter introduced and the important public interest attached to the discussion of various questions, (especially those connected with the most economical applications of fuel, and the production by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal, shales and other fossil fuels of valuable illuminating and lubricating oils,) will give this edition of the Chemical Technology a wide circulation. With the design of giving great fulness to all American facts on these subjects it is to be regretted that the authors had not possessed themselves of the most recent sources of information. Thus in their statistics of the coal trade and distribution in the United States, the first edition of Taylor ap- pears to have been their authority, and no reference is made to the Re- ports of Sir Chas. Lyell and Prof. Wilson to Parliament on the results of the Royal Commission sent to the United States in 1853, from which fresh facts of much importance could have been gleaned. In spite how- 150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ever of these and similar deficiencies, this work is by far the most full, scientific and satisfactory exposition of the subjects of Fuel and [lumin- ation to be found in any manual, and its mechanical perfections add a great claim to its real merits. 9. Western Academy of Natural Sciences, Cincinnati, O.—Officers for 1856.—President, U. P. James.— Vice President, Geo. Graham.— Recording Secretary, J. D. Caldwell Corresponding Secretary, Robert Clarke-— Treasurer, Walter Patterson.—Lzbrarian, H. C. Grosvenor.— Curators.—U. P. James, H. C. Grosvenor, Robt. Clarke, 8. T. Carley. 10. American Association for the Advancement of Science-—The next meeting of the Association will be held at Albany, New York, commenc- ing on Wednesday, the 20th of August. The officers for the ensuing year are, Prof. James Hau. of Albany, President, Dr. B. A. Gould, Gen- eral Secretary, Dr. A. L. Elwyn, Treasurer, Prof. Joseph Lovering of Cambridge, Permanent Secretary. The volumes of the Proceedings for the meetings at Providence and Cleveland have been recently issued by the Permanent Secretary. 11. Mantell’s Medals of Creation.—The edition of this valuable work which Dr. Mantell had nearly made ready for the press when he died, has been issued by his son, in two volumes duodecimo. 12. Transactions of the Connecticut State Agricultural Society, for the year 1855. 350 pp. 8vo. Hartford, 1856. 13. The Art of Perfumery, and Method of obtaining the Odors of Plants, by G. W. Szptimus Pisssz, is the title of a small manual which appears to be carefully prepared—containing numerous processes and recipes. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1856. Osiruary.— Death of Dr. James G. Percival.—Died on the 2d of May, 1856, at Hazel Green, Wisconsin, in the 61st year of his age, Dr. Jams Gates PERCIVAL, eminent as a poet, scholar and philosopher. He was born in the village of Kensington, in the town of Berlin, in Connecticut, Sept. 15, 1795. At an early age he manifested the poetical ability and general intellectual power for which in after life he was so distinguished. He entered Yale College in 1810, but on account of ill health he did not graduate until 1815. During his collegiate course he was eminent for scholarship, although he devoted much time to general studies and to the cultivation of his poetical powers. He studied the profession of Medicine, receiving his degree of M.D., in 1820, but he never engaged in the practice. His first volume of poems was published in 1820; his last in 1843. His verse shows great force and freshness of expression, a fertile imagination, and remarkable rhythmical skill. Many of his songs have taken permanent rank in American literature. Chiefly as a poet will he be remembered, but we must here speak of him in other relations. In 1824 he was for a short time in the service of the United States as Professor of Chemistry in the Military Academy of West Point, and subsequently as a surgeon connected with the recruiting service at Boston. But he preferred solitary study, and gave himself to philological and historical researches, and to general literary pursuits. Having great readiness in acquiring languages, he soon became a critical scholar in most of the modern European tongues, and composed verses in many of Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 them. In 1827 he was employed to revise the manuscript of Dr. Web- ster’s large Dictionary, and to this work he rendered a service much more important than is commonly supposed. He was from time to time en- gaged in various literary labors, as editor and translator. Among the works which he published may be named a revised translation of Malte Brun’s Geography, and a Sketch of the Varieties of the Human Race and their linguistic relations, a tract drawn chiefly from the Mithridates of Adelung and Vater, and printed in 1831. Always an ardent lover of nature, and fond of out-door explorations, he combined with his hterary pursuits, the study of natural history and geology. In 1835 he was appointed in conjunction with Prof. C. U. Shepard, to make a survey of the geology and mineralogy of the State of Connecticut. Dr. Percival took charge of the general geology, and explored the whole state thor- oughly and minutely on foot. He collected materials for a report so full and extensive that it was thought inexpedient to offer the whole for pub- lication, and he consequently presented only a brief summary thereof. This Report was issued at New Haven, in 1842, in an octavo volume of 495 pages, accompanied by a geological map. The work is prepared with great minuteness and precision of detail, but in a manner too much condensed to be very attractive or popular. | : He spent the summer of 1853 in the service of the American Mining Company, in exploring the lead mines of Illinois and Wisconsin, and gave such satisfaction to the inhabitants of that region, that the next year he was offered a commission as State Geologist of Wisconsin. His first annual report on that survey was published at Madison, Wisconsin, in January, 1855, in an octavo volume of 101 pages. The larger part of that year he also spent in the field. While engaged in preparing his second report in January, 1856, his health began to fail, and after a few © months of decline, he passed away. Dr. Percival possessed intellectual faculties of a very high order, and few men have exceeded him in variety and exactness of learning. The late Dr. John. C. Warren—Dr. Joun Cottins Warren was born August 1, 1778, and was the oldest of ten children. He graduated at Cambridge in 1797, at the age of 19. In 1806, when only 25 years of age, and soon after the completion of his medical studies, he was appointed Adjunct Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at Harvard Col- lege, and in 1815 he succeeded, upon the death of his father, to the full professorship (Hersey Professor of Anatomy and Surgery), the duties of which he discharged with eminent ability and success during the period of 32 years. He retired in 1847 from his post as Hersey Professsor of Harvard College, when he had completed his 70th year. ; He was also for several years President of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and was at different times honored with complimentary diplomas by the Academy of Naples, the Medical Society of Florence, the Medico- Chirurgical Society of London, the Academy of Medicine at Paris, and several other foreign learned and scientific associations, besides many in this country. At the time of his death he retained his position and. promptly discharged the duties as President of the Boston Society of Natural History, which institution sustains in his death no ordinary loss. Since his retirement from the active duties of his professorship in Harvard College, Dr. Warren has devoted himself to the study of the 152 Miscellaneous Intelligence. natural sciences, with a zeal quite unparalleled at his advanced age. His museum of specimens in comparative anatomy, osteology and paleontolo- gy, including probably the most perfect specimen in existence of the Mas- todon giganteus, is undoubtedly one of the richest private collecions in the world. A-few years since, when already passed that. age named by the psalmist as the period of human vigor, he prepared and published his great work upon the Mastodon of this country. This he issued at his own personal expense, and gratuitously distributed copies of the work, in the elegance and costliness of which he spared no expense, to the scien- tific men and institutions, both of this country and Europe. 7 Within a few weeks of his death, which occurred on the 4th of May, 1856, he issued a second and enlarged edition, which has been offered for sale at a price that will hardly meet the cost of its publication.— Boston Atlas, May 5th, 1856. Dante, SHarpe, Esq.—Mr. Sharpe, one of the most active members of the Geological Society of London, died at the close of May last. His death was owing to a fall from his horse, in which he fractured his skull. —Letter from Sir FR. I, Murchison, dated June 6, 1856. Proc. Aoap. Nar. Scr. Partaperput, Vol. VIII, No. II, 1856.—-p. 63 and 81, Deserip- - tions of new species of Mollusca from the Cretaceous formations of Nebraska Terri- tory; Ff. B. Meek and Ff. V. Hayden.—p. 2, Notices of remains of extinct Reptiles and Fishes from Nebraska Cretaceous formation; J. Leidy, [cited in this Journal. ]— p. 78, Notice of a new genus of Encrinite—Eleutheocrinus, with a plate; B. F- Shumard and L. P. Yandell, {cited in this Journal, p. 120.]—p. 77, Reptilian re- mains in the New Red Sandstone of Pennsylvania; J. Lea.—p. ‘79, On a new sub- genus of Naiades, and on anew species of Triquetra; J Lea.—p. 80, Description of new fresh-water shells from California; £ Lea——p. 88, Remains of extinct Mam- malia from Nebraska; J. Leidy, [species enumerated, this Journal, p. 120.]—p. 92, Description of twenty-five new species of Exotic Uniones; J. Lea.—p. 95, Deserip- tion of a new Snake from Illinois, &. Kennicott—-p. 96, Description of several new genera and species of fossil fishes from the Carboniferous strata of Ohio; J. S. Newberry. Procrepines or THE Boston Soc. Nat. Hisr., Vol. V.—p. 307, On the blood of a person who died from taking chloroform; C. 7’ Jackson.—-p. 309, Genito-urinary organs of the Boa Constrictor; J. NV. Borland—p. 314, On the chemical composi- tion of the Serpentine marbles known under the name of Verd Antique; C. 7. Jack- son.—p. 319, On the variations of ozone in the atmosphere; W. B. Rogers——p. 321, Note on the short-eared owl, here named Brachyotus Cassinii; 7: Jf. Brewer.—p. 321, Notice of a paper on the Mycology of Massachusetts ; C. L, Andrews.—p. 325, Contributions to New England Mycology (containing a list of known species); C. J. Sprague.—p. 338. On a new water-filter; C. ZT. Jackson——On salt-petre earth of caves; A.A. Hayes, W. B. Rogers.—p. 335, On the formation of Stalactites; C. 7. Jackson, W. B. Rogers. Proc. or tHE Exxiiorr Society or Naturat History, 1856.—p. 6, Deseription with figures of six species of Porcellana inhabiting the eastern coast of North America; by L. RF. Gibbes—Dr. Gibbes in this paper has cleared up the synony- my of Porcellana galathina of Bosc, and figured a specimen. He describes and fig- ures also P. macrocheles and magnifica, armata, and ocellata, previously described by him in the Proceedings of the Amer. Assoc., iii, 190, 191, 1850, and P. sociata of Say. The species referred to P. Boscii by J. D. Dana he regards as new and names P. Dane.—p. 21, Descriptions of new Balani from the Eocene Marl of Ashley river, South Carolina; /. S. Holmes. PRocrEDINGs or THE Essex Instirurr—p. 201, Catalogue of the Birds of Essex Co., Massachusetts, by Mr. F. W. Putnam. According to the Catalogue, there are 235 species (96 genera) of birds of the county thus far ascertained, 10 species acci- dental visitors, and 48 species of birds known to have been found in the State, but not in the county; making in all 293 species and 109 genera. Amer. Jour, Sct. 2nd. Ser, VOL. XXL. Plate 1. aon) MICROSCOPIC FORMS found im the SEA of KAMTS CHAI. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERBIES8.] Art. XII.—On the Measurement of the Pressure of Fired Gun: pouder in its Practical Applications; by WituiaAM E. Woop- BRIDGE, M.D. HARLY in the history of scientific gunnery the pressure of the gases generated by the combustion of gunpowder was made the subject of inquiry and experiment. Gen. Antoni of the Sar- dinian army, writing about the year 1785, narrated experiments on this subject, and stated that fine war-powder fired in a cylin- dric cavity half an inch in diameter and height, with no other opening for escape than the vent through which it was fired, exerted a pressure of from 1900 to 1400 atmospheres. This he deduced from the weight required to close the orifice of the eprouvette against the force of the explosion. Count Rumford, in his experiments made in 1798, on the same subject, used an apparatus in which the escape of gas by the vent was prevented; the powder being fired by heating the closed end of a tube filled with it and communicating with the interior of his eprouvette. ‘The pressure of the gases was measured by the means before referred to. The capacity of his eprouvette was about 25°5 grains of powder. With this apparatus he ex: perimented on the force exerted by different charges from one grain upward, and from the results constructed an empirical formula, expressing very nearly the relation of the indicated expansive force of the gases to their density. The maximum SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856, 20 154 WE. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. force of fired gunpowder he deduced from that estimated suffi- cient for the rupture of his eprouvette, which was burst by a charge filling its cavity, and concluded it to be not less than 54750 atmospheres. Although his conclusions have not always been received as rigorously correct, and some must be considered to be very erroneous, the experiments have ever since been re- garded as furnishing important data, and have been made the subject of careful analysis, especially by Piobert, with reference to the circnmstances of practice. The principles on which to estimate the strength of hollow cylinders were not well understood at the time of Count Rum- ford’s experiments; and the strength of his eprouvette was not more than one-tenth of that which he assigned toit. It does not, however, necessarily follow that the estinated bursting pressure must be reduced in the same ratio, since the relations of succes- sive rupture to time are but imperfectly known. The following experiment seems to show that the extreme force of gunpowder fired in small quantities does not exceed 6200 atmospheres. I enclosed in a hollow cylinder of cast-steel 14 inch in exterior diameter and 4 inch in diameter interiorly, 20 grains of Hazzard’s Kentucky rifle powder, which filled, loosely, the cavity. This was fired by a flash of powder pene- trating through the aperture of a valve (of steel) opening inward, but designed to prevent the escape of gas outward. ‘The cylin- der was not ruptured, and being put under water, no gas was found to escape. (The weight of the instrument was too great to test the loss of gas by my scales.) On pressing in the valve by means of a screw, an abundance of gas escaped, carrying with it the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. The seat of the valve was found to remain perfect, a fact which when compared with a former trial in which the gases escaped in consequence of a slight defect of the valve, is presumptive proof of its immediate action. The residuum was found to weigh 10-45 grains. The calculated strength of the cylinder would be equal to an internal pressure of about 93000 lbs. per square inch, or 6200 atmos- pheres of 15]bs. ~ | In the experiments above mentioned, the quantities of powder employed were small and the circumstances under which it was exploded were very different from those attending the firing of it in practice. Desirous of ascertaining the actual pressures sus- tained by fire-arms of different calibres, when fired with charges variously modified, by a method more exact than the deductions from these experiments afforded, I was led to devise the plan which will now be presented, together with some account of such ~ experiments as have already been made in accordance with it. I proposed to ascertain the pressure of the gases evolved by the combustion of gunpowder, by including in the cavity within W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 155 which the pressure was restrained, a prezometer* which by regis- tering the compression of the oil which it contained, should indicate the pressure to which it was exposed. The piezometer used in the experiments is a small cylindrical vessel of steel, inclosing a quantity of oil which receives the pressure of the fluid by which it may be surrounded through the medium of a piston which will move inward a distance proportioned to the amount of compression. ‘To the piston is attached a stem of wire, projecting inward, and receiving on its side the pressure of a fine point, which, when the piston is moved, makes a line on the stem, equal in length to the distance through which the pis- ton moves. In order that the mark may be more distinctly visi- ble, the stem is coated with a thin film of black varnish. A partial rotation of the piston, after the adjustment of the quantity of oil, inscribes a transverse line on the stem, from which to measure the one denoting the compression. T’ke length of the mark is measured under the microscope by means of a rule divi- ded into ;;5;ths of aninch. The details of the construction of the piezometer are arranged with reference to obtaining as great eapacity and as great length of stroke as its exterior dimensions would permit—to fixing the proper relation between the area of the piston, the capacity of the instrument and the pressures to which it was to be subjected, and to its being easily filled with oil, and the quantity adjusted without including air. The experiments on the compressibility of oil necessary to determine the pressure per square inch corresponding with a given length of stroke, at a given temperature, were carefully made. The amount of compression was subject to actual inspec- tion, up to pressures of 10,000 lbs. per square inch. The oil submitted to trial was enclosed in an instrument of glass consist- ing of a bulb and graduated tube. The scale upon the tube was marked by means of a dividing-machine, and the capacities of its divisions were equal, so far as determined by a careful exam- ination with columns of mercury, of different lengths. The capacity of each division was equal to one part in 8762°2 of the volume of the oil at 60° Fahr. To the bore of the tube (0-088 in., in diameter) was fitted an iron piston, packed by a ring of mercury occupying a groove turned in its edge. This arrange- ment was found to favor accurate observation, and to answer its purpose well in all respects. The instrument was enclosed in a strong tubular receiver, having windows of glass, through which it could be inspected. The windows are truncated cones, having their bases inward, and are fitted to conical cavities in opposite sides of the receiver. A rack and pinion, worked by a little shaft passing through the side of the receiver, serve to bring all _* The use of the word piezometer to denote an instrument for the measurement of pressure instead of compression, certainly accords with its derivation. sd 156 W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. parts of the graduated tube successively in view. The receiver was connected by tubes to a compressing pump and to a pressure- guage. ‘The pressure was measured by weights suspended so as to press directly on the valve of the gauge, over its centre, the relation between the pressure per square inch and the weight on the valve having been previously determined by a comparison with the pressure of a column of mercury fifty-two feet in height. The precautions for the safety of the observer consisted in viewing the progress of compression through the strong plate glass eyes of a mask, and a small aperture in a plate of iron, interposed between them and the windows of the receiver. The compression at pressures above 10,000 lbs. per square inch was ascertained by the use of the steel piezometer enclosed in a receiver of cast-steel, the motion of the piston being registered by the mark on tlie stem, as already explained. At a pressure of 10,000 lbs. per square inch and temperature of 60° Fahr., the apparent compression of the oil, (disregarding that of the glass,) was 0°03059 its original volume being 1. At lower pressures, the compression indicated was nearly propor- tional to the pressure applied, though its rate decreases some- what as the latter increases. This modification continues when the pressure is above 10,000 Ibs. per square inch, but before it is raised to 20,000 lbs. per square inch, the degree of compression augments more rapidly than the pressure. ‘ At 50° the.compression of the oil was less regular in its ratio to the pressure employed, being greater as that was increased— suggesting the idea of the solidification of some of the more easily congealable portions of the oil. To state at length all the considerations relative to the appli- cation of the piezometer which has been described, to the measurement of the pressure of fired gunpowder would extend this paper too far. It is however necessary to mention the inuflu- ence of the change of temperature’ consequent on rapid conden- sation upon the amount of compression produced by any given force, the only circumstance, probably, modifying in an appreci- able degree the correspondence between the pressure indicated by a stroke of the piezometer produced by slow compression, and that indicated by a mark of equal length produced by the action of fired gunpowder. When the compression is ver slowly conducted, the change in the specific heat of the oil due to its condensation effects no observable alteration in its temper- ature, for it readily imparts its surplus heat to the bodies with which it 1s in contact. But if the compression be effected sud- denly, any decrease in the specific heat of the liquid must be accompanied by a corresponding rise of temperature, and the compression produced in the latter case will be less, by the amount of the expansion which would, under that pressure, be W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 157 due to the elevation of temperature mentioned, than that pro- duced by the same force slowly applied. The actual amount of this difference has not been ascertained, but data which lack the precision necessary to exact results, indicate that the correction due to this cause, which increases with both depression of tem- perature, and increase of pressure, is not unimportant. No attempt has been made however, to introduce this correction into the results subsequently presented of the experiments with the piezometer. The subject has been reserved in hope of future experiments, for which apparatus has been partially prepared. In the fall of 1852 a piezometer was constructed on the plan which has been described, and was used, to test its working, for a few firings, in a4 pdr. gun at Perth Amboy, N. J. In Feb., 18538, assistance was granted me from the U.S. Ordnance De- partment for testing my plan, and the subject was referred to Major Alfred Mordecai, with whom I had the pleasure and honor to be associated in making the experiments thus author- ized, which, however, on account of various hindrances, were not undertaken until the winter of 1854-5. T'wo six-pounder guns, one of iron and the other of brass, were used in the experiments. The diameter of the bore of each was, at the seat of the shot, 8°69 in., very nearly. The powder used was Dupont’s cannon-powder, made in 1837. The shot were strapped to sabots of poplar (whitewood) of the full size of the bore unless otherwise specified. The firing was per- formed at Washington Arsenal, D.C. The oil used in the pie- zometer in all these experiments was of the same kind as that used in the experiments on compression, (unbleached winter- strained sperm o1l,) being portions of the same mass. In the first trials, the piezometer, covered with a case of paper to protect it from the heat attending the explosion, was attached by screwing to the bottom of the bore of the gun, occupying a place in the centre of the charge, but the screw was twice bro- ken off, and this mode of using the instrument, which was orig- inally adopted to avoid injuring the gun so as to render it un- serviceable, was exchanged for the following. The new piezometer was enclosed in a hollow plug of steel screwed into the side of the gun so that the cavity of the plug communicated with the bore of the gun. A leather case sur- rounded the instrument to protect it against injury from the shock of firing, and the remaining space within the cavity of the plug was filled with oil, which was retained by a disc of cork or leather loosely closing the communication with the bore. This arrangement was used in all the subsequent firing with cannon, and was entirely satisfactory. The length of the pie- zometer was 2°5 inches, its diameter 0°7 inch, and the diameter of its piston 0°252 in. The adjustment of the quantity of oil in 158 W. EH. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. the instrument was made at the temperature at which the gun was fired. In the brass gun several holes were made for receiy- ing the instrument at different distances (specified in the table) from the bottom of the bore. When notin use, these holes were closed by plugs fitted to each. In the experiment with the musket barrel, a part of the breech-end, in the rear of the charge, was made to serve as a substitute for the cavity of the screw plug, in receiving the pie- zorneter. : The experiments are to be regarded altogether as preliminary trials, but they are not, I hope, without interest and value. The following table presents the most interesting of the results. Experiments on the pressure of fired Gunpowder. Powder. Shot. pacha = 3 5 iezomet’r] & 4 : GUN. av (se SPUN eet ca): ft a bata es ae Revinslss, Weig’t.| Height. (strap’d) Diam: | iF hore, 2 ray) fee ibs, ee al abs in. in. Fahr.| Ibs. (| 125 | 35 | 640 [35 (3:25) |h6° 5} 9640) ) Piezomet’r attach’d to | “ as 6:32 “ “i 54° 110140 the bottom of the bore ‘ . . G . 5AO 7 a4 a ap bere? Powder without cart- Tron , . 8 35 | 633 Bs af 50 16070 Say es ee 6 pdr.) |. *, | 342] 63) | -« « 154° 114910 ede: id 15 | 4:0 6 32 cs Si 58° |17870 “ 4“ 6°33 “ “cc 50° 18630 6 «“ 6:29 &“ ce 47° {17960 a.) 455. j-0:01 af 1 59° |20810)In this and subsequent fir- () « " R65 i Poe « —-|58° |20630| ings, powder in cartr’ge “« | 4:35 | 6:35 ee sd 58° }19810) bags. “ | 455 | 686 |3:575 4 53° |16510 Mean of 3 rounds. “ ‘ 634 | « 4-8 |50° | 9575 Mean of 2 rounds. « “ 639 | « 11°38 |44° | 7740|/Mean of 3 rounds. t3 (13 6°38 “ 15°8 52° 9570 “ 73 6c ‘ 6“ 6 29 73 93:8 50° 8760 “ “ « Brass d “ 6c 6:38 “ 318 66 6930 “ “ “ pdr. | «“ « 6:36 “ 39:8 “ 5380| « “ « % “ 14 6°34 és 47°8 “ec 5910 14 (3 «“ 6 RAB iG La icy 1 « {16260 Mean of 2 rounds. Naked el ABS bo we “¢ if 5480) balls. | 20, 6061 Ot. | 4 Ue ol Bree 30 | 88 One re ef «114820 2:0 | 5:65 | 6°36 |8°575 i « |20640 Mean of 2 rounds. (| 301 885 | 643 | « « | « |29990 15 | 4:38 {12°16 |3°66 15 « |20480 Cylinders equal to 2 balls. Tron “ “ 12°14 “ «“ 3 20780 “ ‘“ 3 5 pdr. “ « 12:15 “ “ 60° 120970 “ “ « grains.| in. Ibs. grs. in. ‘ 10 | OT | 666 |0°675 0 {60° | 2730|Expanding via? j ; ue * Round ball and paper as 4 | 110 | 1:18 | 420* | -65 0 3820} “¢. cartridge. S || 810 | 3:55 | 464* | 675 0 | [151170 2d proof charge. (7 389 | 4:2 dap Wes 0 | {18500.1st proof charge. In the first two experiments recorded in the preceding table the orifice of the piezometer was 84 inches from the bottom of W. Crookes on the Wazx-paper Photographic Process. 159 the bore, and was covered but + inch deep with powder—the orifice facing toward the muzzle of the gun. The momentum of the gases rushing forward in the explosion seems to have re- lieved the instrument from a part of the pressure sustained by the sides of the bore at the same distance from the bottom. The variations of pressure sustained by the gun when fired with charges very nearly the same, are greater, as might be ex- pected, than the variations of initial velocity imparted to the ball under similar circumstances. When the combustion of the powder takes place with more than average rapidity the pres- sure in the first instants of the explosion is augmented, but its action on the ball is not so well sustained as in the case in which the combustion is more slow and consequently longer continued. : The following table of initial velocities of 6 pdr. balls, extracted from a table in Major Mordecai’s ‘Second Report” of his ex- periments on gunpowder, will serve for the comparison. Initial velocities of balls fired from a 6 pdr. gun. Powder. Shot. Tnitial Weight. | Height. ‘We ght. | Diam. | Velocity. Ibs. in. Ibs. | in. fi.pr.sec’d. 15 48 611 3°58 1594 15 4°8 Glos o 1580 15 4:9 6:13 ‘¢ 1553 15 6 26 ih 1538 : 15 ears fda) | Vee am 15 63 Me 1520 munition. ArT. XIUT—Deseription of the Wax-paper process employed for the Photo-Meteorographic Registrations at the Radcliffe Observa- tory; by WILLIAM CROOKES, Esq.* 1. BEFORE attempting to select from the numerous Photo- sraphic processes, the one best adapted to the requirements of Meteorology, it was necessary to take into consideration a num- ber of circumstances, comparatively unimportant in ordinary operations. | To be of any value, the records must go on unceasingly and continuously : Ist. Therefore, the process adopted must be one combining sharpness of definition, with extreme sensitiveness, in order to mark accurately the minute and oftentimes sudden variations of the instruments. * From the Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the year 1854, under the superintendence of Manuel J. Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe Observer. Vol. XV. Oxford: 1856. 160 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 2nd. To avoid all hurry and confusion, it is of the utmost im- portance that the prepared paper or other medium, be of a kind capable of retaining its sensitiveness for several days. érd. The contraction which paper undergoes during the nu- merous operations to which it is subject in most processes, (in general rather an advantage than otherwise,) is here a serious objection; for this reason, the experiment first tried, of trans- ferring to paper the: image received on collodion preserved sen- _ Sitive by the nitrate:of magnesia process, was a failure. 4th. Strong contrast of light and shade, and absence of half tint, unfortunately so common amongst ordinary photographic pictures, is in this case no objection. 5th. It is essential to preserve the original results in an ac- cessible form; and for this reason, the ciresmaaee process, admirably as it seems to answer other requisites, 1s obviously not the one best suited to our purpose. 3 Lastly, the whole operation should if possible be so easily re- ducible to practice, that with a very small share of manipulatory skill, the loss of even a day’s record would be impossible. 2. Bearing these conditions in mind, on looking over the pho- tographic processes with which I was acquainted, that known as the wax-paper process, first described by M. Le-Gray, seemed peculiarly applicable. In sharpness it might be mace to rival collodion; and although generally stated to be slow in its action, I had no doubt that its sensitiveness could be easily increased to the required degree, Of all paper processes, I believed it to be one of the most free from contraction, either during the time itis undergoing the action of the light, or in any subsequent stage. Its chief supe- riority, however, consisted in its capability of remaining sensi- tive for so long atime, that it is of little consequence whether the sensitive sheets be a day or a week old. Then the compara- tive slowness of the development, which has always been looked upon as one of its weak points, would be in this case a positive advantage, as dispensing with that care and attention which must always be bestowed on a quickly developing picture. In addition to all these recommendations, 1t was a process to which I had paid particular attention, and consequently the one in which I might naturally hope to meet with the greatest amount of success. oP 3. The general outline of the process does not differ materially from that which I published some years back in ‘‘ Notes and Queries,” vol. vi, p. 443; but as that account was written for practical photographers, the details of the manipulations were brief. It has therefore been thought advisable, that while de- scribing again the whole process, with the addition of such mod- ifications as the end in view requires, I should also give a fuller W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 161 description of the manipulation, as may render it more service- able to those who have not hitherto paid attention to photo- graphy in its practical details. This must be my excuse, if to some [ seem unnecessarily prolix. None but a practical photog- rapher can appreciate upon what apparently trivial and unim- portant points success in any branch of the art may depend. It may not be without service, if, before entering into the practical details of the process, I say a few words respecting the most advantageous way of arranging a photographic laboratory, together with the apparatus, chemicals, &¢., which are of most frequent use. Among those requisites, which may be almost called absolute necessaries, are gas, and a plentiful supply of good water, as soft as can be procured. 4. The windows and shutters of the room should be so con- trived as to allow of their either being thrown wide open for pur- poses of ventilation, or of being closed sufficiently well to exclude every gleam of daylight; and the arrangement should admit of the transition -from one to the other being made with as little trouble as possible. 5. A piece of very deep orange-colored glass, about two feet square, should be put in the window, and the shutter ought to be constructed so as to allow of the room being perfectly dark- ened, or illuminated, either by ordinary daylight, or daylight which has been deprived of its photographic rays, by filtering through the orange glass. The absorbing power of this glass will be found to vary very considerably in different specimens, and I know of no rule but experience to find out the quality of any particular sample; the best plan is to select from a good ‘stock one of as dark a color as possible. The proper color is opaque to the rays of the solar spectrum above the fixed line E. 6. The best source of heat is unquestionably gas. It will be as well, however, to have a fire-place in the room, as, in some cases, a gas stove will be inapplicable. There should be gas burners in different parts of the room for illumination at night; and also an arrangement for placing a screen of orange glass in front of each. | i Several rough deal benches should be put up in different parts of the room, with shelves, drawers, cupboards, &c. The arrange- ment of these matters must of course depend upon the capabili- ties of the room. 7. The following apparatus is required. The quantities are those that we have found necessary in this Observatory. Kight dishes. Kight mill board covers. Three brushes for cleaning dishes. A vessel for melting wax. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 21 162 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. Two gauze burners. One box iron. Filtering paper. A still for water. One platinum, and three bone spatulas, (flat paper knives). Six funnels. One funnel stand. Pint, half pint, one ounce, and one drachm, measures. Three glass flasks. Boxes for holding paper. Scales and weights. | Sponge, glass rods, stoppered bottles, &c. | 8. The dishes may be made of glass, porcelain, or gutta percha. Glass and porcelain are certainly cleaner than gutta percha; but for general use the latter is far preferable, as with it there is no risk of breakage, and the bottom of the dish can be made per- fectly flat, which is a great advantage. These dishes should be made of sufficient length to allow of a margin of about half an inch at each end when the paper is in; and the shape should be made as nearly square as possible, by arranging them to take two or three sheets side by side. The gutta percha shouldbe of a good thickness, otherwise it will bend and give way, if it be moved when full of liquid. The depth must depend upon the size of the dish, and the pur- pose for which it is intended. The dishes in use here accumodate three sheets of paper side by side; they are fifteen inches square, and one inch and a half deep. I think, however, for some purposes, where they are not wanted to be moved about much, (i. e. those for holding the bath of hyposulphite of soda for fixing,) the depth might be advantageously increased to two inches and a half. Hach dish ought to be reserved for a particu- lar solution, and should have a piece of mill board a little longer than itself for a cover. 9. The brushes for cleaning the dishes are of two sorts; a common scrubbing brush will be found the best for all parts but the corners, and for these another kind must be used, having a handle about a foot long, at the end of which are tufts of stiff bristles, projecting about three quarters of an inch, and radiating on all sides, forming a ball about two inches and a half in diam- ~ eter. Hardly any dirt will be found capable of resisting this brush, if it be pressed into a corner, and twisted round several times. The dishes ought always to be put away clean, as the dirt is much more difficultly removed if allowed to dry on. 10. When a dish is to be cleaned, if it be of glass or porcelain, strong nitric acid must be poured into it; if of gutta percha, it should be filled with a strong solution of cyanid of potassium. - After soaking for half an hour or an hour, according to the state W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Procees. 168 ef the dish, the liquid is to be returned into the bottle, (both the nitric acid and the cyanid can be used several times,) the dish rinsed out with water, and then well scrubbed in every part with the brushes; afterwards it is to be washed several times in common water, once with distilled water, and then placed in a slanting position against a wall, face downwards, to drain on clean blotting paper. 11. The vessel in which the wax is melted, must be contrived so as never to allow of its reaching a higher temperature than 212° Fahr., or decomposition of the wax might ensue. I have found the most convenient apparatus to be, a tin vessel 15 inches square and 4 inches deep, having a tray which holds the wax fitting into it, about 1 inch deep. The under vessel is to be half filled with water, and by keeping this just at the boiling tem- perature, the wax above will soon become liquid. 12. The best source of heat is that known as the gauze gas burner, it being free from smoke or dust, and not lable to blacken anything placed overit. It consists of a common argand burner fixed on a rather low and heavy iron stand, which is sur- mounted by a copper or brass cylinder 5 inches in height and 2 inches wide, having a piece of wire gauze of 900 meshes to the square inch fastened over the top. By connecting this burner by means of vulcanised indian rubber tubing to the gas pipe, it can be moved about the table to any convenient position. The mixture of gas and air formed inside the cylinder, 1s to be lighted above the wire gauze; it burns over this with a large and nearly colorless but intensely hot flame. 13. The most convenient form of iron is the ordinary box iron, made hot by heaters inside; perhaps it might be improved ‘in shape by having the end not quite so pointed, but this is not of much consequence. Some operators recommend facing the bottom with a plate of silver; this is very expensive, and seems to me to be attended with no advantage whatever. 14. For the purpose of absorbing the excess of wax from the surface of the sheet, I should recommend the ordinary white wove blotting paper, medium thickness. But this is not suffi- ciently free from impurities to serve either for drying the sensi- tive sheets, or for filtering; for this purpose, the fine filtering paper (not the Swedish) employed in quantitative chemical oper- ations is the best. 15. The distilled water being one of those substances upon the purity of which syccess will in a great measure depend, it will be found much safer to distil it on the premises, especially as the quantity required is trifling. A convenient size for the still is about two gallons; it may be procured ready made, with worm &c. complete, of any large dealer in chemical apparatus. {t will be found far more economical both in time and trouble, 164 W. Crookes on the Wax paper Photographic Process. to heat the water over a charcoal or coke fire, in preference to using gas for this purpose. 16. A platinum spatula is a most necessary instrument in almost every operation; the best size is 4 inches long, $ an inch - wide at one end, and $ at the other, the corners being rounded. off, it should be of a sufficient substance to prevent its being easily bent. Its chief use is, to raise one corner of the sheets to allow of their being held between the finger and thumb, for the purpose of removing from one dish to another, as, previous to fixing, none of the solutions should come in contact with the fingers. During the fixing and subsequent washing, bone spatulas will be found very useful; but after having been in contact with hy- posulphite of soda, they must be carefully kept away from any of the previous baths, or black stains will infallibly ensue. 17. The funnels may be either of glass or porcelain; it will be found useful to have several of different sizes, from two inches diameter, up to six inches. A convenient stand for them may be made of a piece of flat board, with circular holes, about half the diameter of the funnels employed, drilled into it, and sup- ported upon four legs about eight inches high. The paper used for filtering should be the finest of the two sorts of blotting paper mentioned above (14). The filters can either be cut from the sheet as wanted, or they may be obtained ready cut in packets. The measures should be of glass, graduated, the pint and half pint into ounces, the ounce measure into drachms, and the drachm measure into minims; they should be rather long in proportion to their width. - The Florence oil flasks, which can be obtained for a trifle at any warehouse, will be found to answer every purpose, nearly as well as the more expensive German flasks. They must be cleansed thoroughly from the adhering oil; this may be done by boiling in them, over the gauze gas burner, a strong solution of ordinary washing soda, and afterwards well rinsing out with water. 18. It will be found indispensable, where there are many operations going on at the same time, and many different sheets of paper in various stages of progress, to have a separate box or division to hold the paper in each of its stages. ‘The plan I have found most convenient, is to obtain several mill-board boxes, the fronts of which will fall flat when the lid is hfted up, similar to those used by stationers for holding letter paper, &c.: they can be made to hold two or three piles of sheets side by side. The scales and weights need not be of any great accuracy. A six inch beam capable of turning to half a grain, when loaded with 500 grains in each pan, will be all that is requisite; the W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 165 pans must be of glass, and the weights should consist of a set of grain and a set of drachm weights. A sponge will be found useful for wiping up any of the solu- tions that may have been spilt on the bench. Solid glass stirring rods of about the thickness of a quill, and six or eight inches long, and a small wedgewood pestle and mortar, are of great service in many of the operations. Stoppered bottles should be employed for all the solutions; and too much care cannot be taken to label each bottle accurately and distinctly. 19. Besides the above apparatus, the following materials and chemicals are requisite. A rough estimate is also given of their relative consumption in three months. Photographic paper, 270 sheets, or 112 square feet. Four pounds of wax. Three ounces of iodid of potassium Three ounces of bromid of potassium. Four ounces of nitrate of silver. Two ounces of glacial acetic acid. Four ounces of gallic acid. One pint of alcohol. Seven pounds of hyposulphite of soda. Half a pound of cyanid of potassium. Half a pint of concentrated nitric acid. Eighteen gallons of distilled water. 20. The selection of a good sample of paper for the basis on © which the sensitive material is to be formed is of great import- ance, as any imperfection will be a source of annoyance in ever stage of the process, and will hardly fail to show itself on the finished picture. The paper, which from numerous experiments I have found to be superior to any other, is that known as Canson’s thin photographic paper. This is manufactured with great care, and is in general very uniform in quality. It will be found by far the most advantageous plan, when used on a scale like the present, to order it of some wholesale sta- tioner cut to the requisite dimensions. The size of the sheets in use here is 42 inches by 1211 inches*. Hitherto Messrs. Hallifax and Co. 319, Oxford Street, have supplied us with the paper of this size. 21. I am indebted to Mr. Barclay of Regent Street, wax bleacher, for much valuable information concerning wax and its adulterations, and for an extensive assortment of waxes of all * This is a most inconvenient size, as it involves the cutting of more than one third of the paper to waste. The admirably ingenious arrangement of Mr. Ronald’s, was not made with the view of employing Canson’s paper; or it would doubtless have been contrived to accomodate sheets of a size which could be cut with less waste, such as 4} by 13 inches, or 48 by 11} inches. 166 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. kinds, and in every degree of purity: also to Mr. Maskelyne, for a valuable series of the chemical bodies of which the various waxes are composed; by means of these, I have been enabled to examine the effect produced by saturating the paper with bees wax from different countries, Myrica wax, Canauba wax, China wax, spermaceti, ethal, stearie acid, stearin, palmitic acid, palmitin, paraffin, and various oils. 22. I find that the action of the wax is purely mechanical, almost the only difference of effect produced by any of the above bodies, widely as they vary in their chemical nature, arising from a difference in their physical properties. Stearin, palmitin, and most of the oils, are too greasy in their nature to be advantageously employed. The fatty acids do not make the paper in the least greasy, but they anjure the transpa- rency. China wax has almost too high a melting point, and gives a crystalline structure to the paper. Spermaceti also is too crystalline. Paraffin, ethal, and the waxes, produce very good results; of these bees wax is the only one that would be prac- tically available for this purpose. It should be free from stearin, stearic acid, tallow, &c.; the presence of a little spermaceti does not much interfere, but as its price differs little from that of pure wax, it is not socommon an adulteration as the other cheaper substances. * 28. It will be unsafe to use the wax in the form of round thin tablets, about 4 inches in diameter, in which it is usually met with, as in this state it is generally adulterated to the extent of at least 50 per cent. As an article of commerce, it is next to impossible to obtain small quantities of wax sufficiently pure to be relied upon. The only way I can recommend is to apply to one of the well known large bleachers, and trust to them for supplying the arti- cle inastate of purity. Whenever I have found it necessary to make such applications, my request has always been acceded to in the most cordial manner, and every information has been given with the utmost readiness. _ 24. The other chemicals, (with the exception of the strong nitric acid, which any retail druggist will supply, and the water, which had best be distilled on the premises,) should be ordered | direct from some manufacturing chemist, as otherwise, unless the operator have a sufficient knowledge of chemistry to be able to detect any inferiority, there is danger of not having the articles sufficiently pure. The iodid and bromid of potassium should be ordered purified. The nitrate of silver should be crystallized, not in sticks; it ought to be perfectly dry, and have no smell, acid or otherwise. There are usually two varieties of glacial acetic acid to be met with; the purest must be used; it should be perfectly free from W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 167 any empyreumatic odor, and must cause no turbidity when mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver, e.g.in making the exciting bath (42). The gallic acid should be as nearly white in color as possible. Hspecial care should be taken to have the alcohol good; it should be 60° over proof, and of specific gravity 0°83. On evap- orating a few drops on the palm of the hand, no smell should be left behind, nor should it, under the same circumstances, leave any stain on a sheet of white paper. 25. The hyposulphite of soda will be found one of the articles most difficult to obtain pure; there is a large quantity at present in the market, having little else of the salt but the name, and is of course totally unfit for use; if there be the least doubt about its purity, it should be tested in the following manner :-— Weigh out accurately 10 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolve this in half an ounce of distilled water; then add 4 grains of chlorid of sodium*(common salt) also dissolved in water. On mixing these two solutions together, a white curdy precipitate of chlorid of silver will fall down. Next add 22 grains of the hy- posulphite of soda, and allow it to stand for about ten minutes, stirring occasionally with a glass rod. If at the end of that time the chlorid of silver has dissolved, the hyposulphite of soda may be considered as pure. A greater or less amount of residue will indicate roughly the degree of impurity. 26. The cyanid of potassium is usually met with in the form of hard white lumps; they will be found quite pure enough. It | is very useful in removing stains formed by nitrate of silver on the fingers, &c., but the greatest care must be taken in its em- ployment, as it is a most energetic poison; its use in cleaning the dishes from silver stains has been pointed out above (10). 27. The first operation to be performed is to make a slight pencil mark on that side of the photographic paper which is to receive the sensitive coating. If a sheet of Canson’s paper be examined in a good light, one of the sides will be found to pre- sent a finely reticulated appearance, while the other will be per- fectly smooth; this latter is the one that should be marked. Fifty or a hundred sheets may be marked at once, by holding a pile of them firmly by one end, and then bending the packet round, until the loose ends separate one from another like a fan; generally all the sheets lie in the same direction, therefore it is - only necessary to ascertain that the smooth side of one of them is uppermost, and then draw a pencil once or twice along the exposed edges. 28. The paper has now to be saturated with white wax. The apparatus for this purpose has been previously described (11.) The wax is to be made perfectly liquid, and then the sheets of paper, taken up singly and held by one end, are gradually low- 168 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. ered on to the fluid. As soon as the wax is absorbed, which takes place almost directly, they are to be lifted up with rather a quick movement, held by one corner, and allowed to drain until the wax, ceasing to run off, congeals on the surface. When the sheets are first taken up for this operation, they should be briefly examined, and such as shew the water mark, contain any black spots,* or have any thing unusual about their appearance, - should be rejected. 29. The paper in this stage will contain far more wax than necessary; the excess may be removed, by placing the sheets | singly between blotting paper (14), and ironing them; but this is wasteful, and the loss may be avoided by placing on each side of the waxed sheet two or three sheets of unwaxed photographic paper, and then ironing the whole between blotting paper; there will generally be enough wax on the centre sheet to saturate fully those next to it on each side, and partially, if not entirely, the others. Those that are imperfectly waxed may be made the outer sheets of the succeeding set. Finally, each sheet must be separately ironed between blotting paper, until the glistening patches of wax are absorbed. 30. It is of the utmost consequence that the temperature of the iron should not exceed that of boiling water. Before using, I always dip it into water until the hissing entirely ceases. This is one of the most important points in the whole process, but one which it is very difficult to make beginners properly appre- ciate. The disadvantages of having too hot an iron, are not apparent until an after stage, while the saving of time and trouble is a great temptation to beginners. It is to a neglect of this point that I am inclined to attribute most of the faults so commonly laid to the charge of this beautiful process; such as gravelly appearance, or want of smoothness in the lights, and quick decomposition in the developing solution. 31. A well waxed sheet of paper, when viewed by obliquely reflected light, ought to present a perfectly uniform glazed appear- ance on one side, while the other should be rather duller; there must be no shining patches on any part of the surface, nor should any irregularities be observed on examining the paper with a black ground placed behind; seen by transmitted light, it will appear opalescent, but there should be no approach to a | ee structure. The color of a pile of waxed sheets is slightly uish. 32. The paper, having undergone this preparatory operation, is ready for zodzing ; this is effected by completely immersing it In an aqueous solution of an alkaline iodid, either pure or mixed with some analogous salt. * These spots have been analyzed by Mr. Malone; he finds them to consist, not of iron, as is generally supposed, but of small pieces of brass. I have also exam- ined them myself with a like result. W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 169 One would think that in no part of the photographic operation, would greater unanimity exist, than on the composition of the iodizing bath; but on this subject, strangely enough, no two persons seem to think alike. The formule for this bath are nearly as numerous as the operators themselves, and some of them show not a little ingenuity in the manner in which sub- stances apparently the most unphotographic have been pressed into service. 83. The results of numerous experiments, which I need not mention here, had convinced me, that for ordinary purposes, iodid of silver per se was the best sensitive surface for receiving an image in the Camera; but on making use of that body in these operations, (by employing pure iodid of potassium in the bath,) | was surprised to meet with results, for which I was at first unable to account. A little consideration, however, showed me the direction in which I was to look foraremedy. The ex- periments which had led me to prefer iodid of silver as a sensi- tive surface, had all been performed with sunlight, either direct, or more frequently in the form of diffused daylight. In this ease, however, coal gas was the source of light; and if, as was very probable, there were any great difference in the quality of the light from these two sources, the superiority of iodid over the bromid or chlorid of silver would still be a matter for ex- periment. 34. A comparison of the spectra of the two kinds of light showed a very marked difference; while in sunlight the spectral rays which are around and above the fixed line G, (the indigo and higher rays) are so intense and numerous, as completely to overpower the small space between and about F and G, (the blue and upper portion of the green,) a part of the spectrum which affects bromid more than iodid of silver; in gaslight, the case was quite different. The great bulk of photographic rays was found to lie within the limits of the visible spectrum, and conse- quently the photographic action of this hght was likely to be fur more energetic on bromid than on iodid of silver. These suppo- sitions were fully borne out by experiment: on introducing a little bromid of potassium into the iodizing bath, the change was very apparent. It requires a certain proportion to be observed between the two to obtain the best results. If the iodid of potassium be in excess, the resulting silver salt will be wanting in sensitiveness, requiring a comparatively long development to render an image visible; while, if the bromid be in excess, there will be a great want of vigor in the impression, the picture being red and transparent. When the proportion between the two is properly adjusted, the paper will be extremely sensitive, the picture presenting a vigorous black appearance, without the least approach to red. ‘The addition of a chlorid was found to SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856, 22 170 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. produce a somewhat similar effect to that of a bromid, but in a less marked degree. As no particular advantage could be traced to it, it was not employed. 35. I have also tried most of the different forms of organic matter, which it is customary to add to this bath, but I cannot recommend them; the most that can be said is, that some of them do no harm. At first I thought a little isinglass might be an improvement, as it instantly removes the greasiness from the surface of the paper, and allows the iodid of potassium to pene- trate more readily. Unfortunately, however, it interferes with the most important property of this process, that of remaining sensitive for a long time. 86. I think the best results are obtained, when the iodid and bromid are mixed in the proportion of their atomic weights; the strenzth being as follows: Jodid of potassium : : 582°5 grains. Bromid of potassium . 417° grains. Distilled water . ; é . 40 ounces.* When the two salts have dissolved in the water, the mixture should be filtered; the bath will then be fit for use. 37. At first, a slight difficulty will be felt in immersing the waxed sheets in the liquid without enclosing air bubbles, the greasy nature of the surface causing the solution to run off. The best way is to hold the paper by one end, and gradually to bring it down on to the liquid, commencing at the other end; the paper ought not to slant towards the surface of the bath, or there will be danger of enclosing air bubbles; but while it is being laid down, the part out of the liquid should be kept as nearly as possible perpendicular to the surface of the liquid; any curling up of the sheet when first laid down, may be prevented by breathing on it gently. In about ten minutes, the sheet ought to be lifted up by one corner, and turned over in the same manner; a slight agitation of the dish will then throw the liquid entirely over that sheet, and another can be treated in like manner. 88. The sheets must remain soaking in this bath for about three hours; several times during that interval, (and especially if there be many sheets in the same bath,) they ought to be moved about and turned over singly, to allow of the liquid pen- etrating between them, and coming: perfectly in contact with every part of the surface. After they have soaked for a suffi- cient time, the sheets should be taken out and hung up to dry; this 1s conveniently affected by stretching a string across the * While giving the above as the calculated quantities, I do not wish to insist upon their being adhered to with any extreme accuracy. An error of a few grains on either side would I believe be without any perceptible effect on the result. W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 171 room, and hooking the papers on to this by means of a pin bent into the shape of the letter S. After a sheet has been hung up for a few minutes, a piece of blotting paper, about one inch square, should be stuck to the bottom corner to absorb the drop, and prevent its drying on the sheet, or it would cause a stain in the picture. 39. While the sheets are drying, they should be looked at occasionally, and the way in which the liquid on the surface dries, noticed; if it collect in drops all over the surface, it is a sign that the sheets have not been sufficiently acted on by the lodizing bath, owing to their having been removed from the latter too soon. The sheets will usually during drying assume a dirty pink appearance, owing probably to the liberation of iodine by ozone in the air, and its subsequent combination with the starch and wax in the paper. This is by no means a bad sign, if the color be at all uniform; but if it appear in patches and spots, it shows that there has been some irregular absorption of the wax, or defect in the iodizing, and it will be as well to reject sheets so marked. 40. As soon as the sheets are quite dry, they can be put aside in a box for use at a future time. There is a great deal of un- certainty as regards the length of time the sheets may be kept in this state without spoiling; [ can speak from experience as to there being no sensible deterioration after a lapse of ten months, but further than this I have not tried. Up to this stage, it is immaterial whether the operations have | been performed by daylight or not; but the subsequent treat- ment, until the fixing of the picture, must be done by yellow light (8). - 41, The next step consists in rendering the iodized paper sen- sitive to hght. Although, when extreme care is taken in this operation, it is hardly of any consequence when this is performed; yet in practice, it will not be found convenient to excite the paper earlier than about a fortnight before its being required for use. The materials for the exciting bath are nitrate of silver, glacial acetic acid, and water. Some operators replace the acetic acid by tartaric acid; but as I cannot perceive the effect of this change except in a diminution of sensitiveness, I have not adopted it. Itis of little importance what be the strength of the solu- tion of nitrate of silver; the disadvantages of a weak solution are, that the sheets require to remain in contact with it for a con- siderable time before the decomposition is effected, and the bath requires oftener renewing; while with a bath which is too strong, time is equally lost in the long-continued washing requisite to enable the paper to keep good for any length of time. The quantity of acetic acid is also of little consequence. 172 W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process. 42. In the following bath, I have endeavored so to adjust the Pe ortion of nitrate of silver, as to avoid as much as possible oth the inconveniences mentioned above, Nitrate of silver . : : ; 800 grains. Glacial acetic acid ; : . 2 drachms. Distilled water . : : : 20 ounces. The nitrate of silver and acetic acid are to be added to the water, and when dissolved, filtered into a clean dish (10), taking care that the bottom of the dish be flat, and that the liquid cover it to the depth of at least half an inch all over; by the side of this, two similar dishes must be placed, each containing distilled water. 43. A sheet of iodized paper is to be taken by one end, and gradually lowered, the marked side downwards, on to the exci- ting solution, taking care that no liquid gets on to the back, and no air bubbles are enclosed. It will be necessary for the sheet to remain on this bath from five to ten minutes; but it can generally be known when the operation is completed by the change in appearance, the pink color entirely disappearing, and the sheet assuming a pure homo- geneous straw color. When this is the case, one corner of it must be raised up by the platinum spatula, lifted out of the dish with rather a quick movement, allowed to drain for about half a minute, and then floated on the surface of the water in the second dish, while another iodized sheet is placed on the nitrate of silver solution; when this has remained on for a sufficient time, it must be in like manner transferred to the dish of distilled water, having removed the previous sheet to the next dish. 44, A third iodized sheet can now be excited, and when this 1s completed, the one first excited must be rubbed perfectly dry between folds of clean blotting paper (14), wrapped up in clean paper, and preserved in a portfolio until required for use; and the others can be transferred a dish forward, as before, taking care that each sheet be washed twice in distilled water, and that at every fourth sheet the dishes of washing water be emptied, and replenished with clean distilled water; this water should not be thrown away, but preserved in a bottle for a subsequent operation (49). 45. The above quantity of the exciting bath, will be found quite enough to excite about fifty sheets of the size here em- ti or 3000 square inches of paper. After the bulk has een exhausted for this purpose, it should be kept, like the washing waters, for the subsequent operation of developing (49). Of course these sensitive sheets must be kept in perfect dark- ness. Generally, sufficient attention is not paid to this point. It should be borne in mind, that an amount of white light, quite harmless if the paper were only exposed to its action for a few W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 178 minutes, will infallibly destroy it if be allowed to have access to it for any length of time; therefore, the longer the sheets are required to be kept, the more carefully must the light, even from gas, be excluded; they must likewise be kept away from any fumes or vapor. 46. Experience alone can tell the proper time to expose the sensitive paper to the action of light, in order to obtain the best effects. However, it will be useful to remember, that it is almost always possible, however short the time of exposure, to obtain some trace of effect by prolonged development. Varying the time of exposure, within certain limits, makes very little differ- ence on the finished picture; its principal effect being to shorte or prolong the time of development. | Unless the exposure to light has been extremely long, (much longer than can take place under the circumstances we are con- templating,) nothing will be visible on the sheet after its removal from the mstrument, more than there was previous to exposure ; the action of the lhght merely producing a latent impression, which requires to be developed to render it visible. 47. The developing solution in nearly every case consists of an aqueous solution of gallic acid, with the addition, more or less, of a solution of nitrate of silver. An improvement on the ordinary method of developing with gallic acid, formed the subject of a communication to the Philo- sophical Magazine for March, 1855, where I recommend the employment of a strong alcoholic solution of gallic acid, to be - dilluted with water when required for use, as being more econo- mical both of time and trouble than the preparation of a great quantity of an aqueous solution for each operation. - 48. The solution is thus made: put two ounces of crystallized gallic acid into a dry flask with a narrow neck; over this pour six ounces of good alcohol, (60° over proof,) and place the flask in hot water until the acid is dissolved or nearly so. This will not take long, especially if it be well shaken once or twice. Allow it to cool, then add half a drachm of glacial acetic acid, and filter the whole into a stoppered bottle. 49. The developing solution which I employ for one set of sheets,.or 180 square inches, is prepared by mixing together ten ounces of the water that has been previously used for washing the excited papers (44), and four drachms of the exhausted exci- ting bath (45); the mixture is then filtered into a perfectly clean dish, and half a drachm of the above alcoholic solution of gallic acid poured into it. The dish must be shaken about until the greasy appearance has quite gone from the surface; and then the sheets of paper may be laid down on the solution in the ordinary manner with the marked side downwards, taking particular care that none of the solution gets on the back of the paper, or it will 174 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. cause a stain. Should this happen, either dry it with blotting paper, or immerse the sheet entirely in the liquid. : 50. If the paper has been exposed to a moderate light, the picture will begin to appear within five minutes of its being laid on the solution, and will be finished in a few hours. It may however sometimes be requisite, if the light has been feeble, to prolong the development for a day or more. If the dish be per- fectly clean, the developing solution will remain active for the whole of this time, and when used only for a few hours, will be quite clear and colorless, or with the faintest tinge of brown; a darker appearance indicates the presence of dirt. The progress of the development may be watched, by gently raising one cor- ner with the platinum spatula, and lifting the sheet up by the fingers. This should not be done too often, as there is always a risk of producing stains on the surface of the picture. I prefer allowing the development to go on, until the black is rather more intense than ultimately required, as it is generally toned down in the fixing bath. 51. As soon as the picture is judged to be sufficiently intense, it must be removed from the gallo-nitrate, and laid on a dish of water, (not necessarily distilled). In this state it may remain until the final operation of fixing, which need not be performed imme‘liately, if inconvenient. After beng washed once or twice, and dried between clean blotting paper, the picture will remain unharmed for weeks, if kept in a dark place. 52. The fixing bath is composed of a saturated solution of hy- posulphite of soda diluted with its own bulk of water. Into this the sheets are to be completely immersed, until the whole of the yellow iodid of silver has been dissolved out. This operation need not be performed by yellow light; daylight is much bettter for shewing whether the picture be entirely fixed. This will take from a quarter of an hour to two hours, according to the time the bath has been in use. It will be well not to put too many sheets into the bath at once, in order to avoid the necessity of turning them over to allow the liquid to penetrate every part. When fixed, the sheet if held up between the light and the eye, will present a pure transparent appearance in the white parts. The fixing bath gradually becomes less and less active by use, and then its action is very energetic on the dark parts of the picture, attacking and dissolving them equally with the un- changed iodid. When this is the case it should be put on one side, (not thrown away,) and a fresh bath made. 53. After removal from the fixing bath, the sheets must be well washed. In this operation, the effect depends more upon the quantity of water used, than upon the duration of the immer- W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 175 sion. When practicable it is a good plan to allow water from a tap to flow over the sheets for a minute or two, and having thus got rid of the hyposulphite of soda from the surface, to allow them to soak for about ten minutes in a large dish of hot water. 54, They are then to be dried by hanging up by a crooked pin, as afteriodizing. When dry, they will present a very rough and granular appearance in the transparent parts; this is removed by melting the wax, either before a fire, or, what is far better, by placing them between blotting paper, and passing a warm iron over them; by this means, the white parts will re- cover their original transparency. 55. The picture, arrived at this stage, may be considered fin- ished, as far as is requisite for the purposes of measurement and registration; sometimes, however, it may be necessary to multi- ply copies, for the purpose of transmitting to other Meteorologi- eal Observatories facsimiles of the records, or at least of those containing any remarkable phenomena. I will therefore now detail the method of printing photographic positives from these negatives, premising that the process does not differ materially from that usually adopted. ' 56. The only extra piece of apparatus required, is a pressure frame; which consists essentially of a stout piece of plate glass in a frame, with an arrangement for screwing a flat board, the size of the glass, tight against it. Though apparently very sim- ple, some care is required, when the frame is a large one, in arranging the screw and board at the back, so as to obtain an | equal pressure all over the surface; unless this is done, the glass will be very liable to break. The pressure frames supplied to us by Messrs Newman and Murray, 122, Regent Street, are un- exceptionable in this respect. The board should of course be well padded with velvet, and the lateral dimensions of the glass should be the same as those of the gutta percha dishes (8). 57. The extra chemicals required for this process, are chlorid of sodium, and chlorid of gold. Generally speaking, for the former, common table salt will be found quite pure enough; but as the quantity required is but small, it will perhaps be found better to obtain some of the recrystallized salt along with the other chemicals. The chlorid of gold is merely required for an artistic effect. Many persons object to the reddish brown appearance of ordi- nary photographic positives; the addition of a little chlorid of gold to the fixing bath converts this into a rich brown or black ; the trifling quantity required removes any objection to its use on the score of expense. 58. I prefer using the same kind of paper for positives as for negatives (20). Messrs Canson manufacture a thicker paper, which is generally called positive paper, but I think the thin is 176 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. far preferable; the surface is smoother, and the various solutions penetrate much better. 59. The first operation which the paper has to undergo is salting: the bath for this purpose consists of Chlorid of sodium : A : 100 grains Distilled water : : 40 ounces. Filter this into a clean dish, and completely immerse the sheets, marked as directed (27). ‘This is best done by laying them gently on the surface of the liquid, and then pressing them under by passing a glass rod over them; as many sheets as the dish will hold may be thus immersed one after the other. Allow them to soak for about ten minutes, then lift and turn them over in a body; afterwards they may be hung up to dry (88), com- mencing with the sheet which was first put in. When dry, they may be taken down and put aside for use at any future time. The sheets in drying generally curl up very much; it will there- fore be found convenient in the next process, if the salted sheets, before being put away, have been allowed to remain in the pressure frame, tight, for about 24 hours. This makes them perfectly flat. 60. The exciting bath is composed of Nitrate of silver . , ; 150 grains. Distilled water . : : : 10 ounces. After filtering, pour the solution into a clean dish; and then lay the sheets, salted as above, on the surface, face downwards, gently breathing on the back, if it be necessary, to counteract the tendency to curl up; let them remain on this bath for about 10 minutes, and then hang up to dry (88). 61. This exciting bath will serve for nearly 100 sheets; it will then be better to put it on one side (64), and make a new bath. It is not advisable to excite more positive sheets than will be likely to be required in the course of a week, for they gradually turn brown by keeping, even in the dark, and lose sensitiveness. They will, however, keep much better, if pressed tight in the pressure frame, and thus protected from the air. | 62. When a positive is to be printed from a negative, let the glass of the pressure frame be perfectly cleansed and free from dust on both sides, then lay the negative on it, with its back to the glass. On it place a sheet of positive paper, with its sensi- tive side down. Then, having placed over, as a pad, several sheets of blotting paper, screw the back down with sufficient force to press the two sheets into close contact, but of course not so as to endanger the glass. Now place the frame in the sun, so that the light can fall perpendicularly on the glass, and allow it to remain there until it is judged to have been exposed long enough. W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process. 17% 63. No rule can be laid down for the proper time of exposure; it will depend upon the quality of the light, and intensity of the negative; some pictures being completed in a few minutes, others requiring upwards of half an hour. The printing should always go on until the picture is several shades darker than ultimately required. A very little experience will enable the operator to judge so well of the quality of the light, as hardly ever to have a failure. If the two sheets of paper be stuck together in two or three places at the edges with small pieces of gummed paper, the frame can be removed to the dark room, and the progress of the sheets examined; but this is always attended with some danger, for unless they are replaced without having been shifted one from the other, there will be a double image. 64. As soon as the picture is considered to be printed suffi- ciently deep, it has to be fixed. The fixing bath consists of Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces. Water : : 30 ounces. This bath will be found to fix the pictures perfectly, but they will generally be of a reddish tint; if it be thought desirable to obtain the pictures of some shade of dark brown, or black, it will be necessary to employ a bath made as follows; Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces. Water, . Lees . 10 ounces. Exhausted positive exciting solution (61) 10 ounces. Mix these together and then add the following; Water , : : : 10 ounces, Chlorid of gold . : : : . 20 grains; taking care in mixing to pour the solution of gold into the solu- tion of hyposulphite, and not the latter into the former, or another decomposition will be produced. Pour this mixture into a dish, and lay the positive carefully on it, face downwards. As soon as it is thoroughly damp, (which may be known by its becoming perfectly flat after having curled up,) immerse it totally in the hquid. 65. The pictures should not be too crowded in the bath, as they are very apt to become irregularly colored in places where the hyposulphite has not had free access during the whole of the time. When first put in, the color will change to a ight brown, and in the course of some time, varying from ten minutes to two or three hours, it will pass through the different shades of brown to black and purple, gradually fading in intensity during the time. It will be necessary to allow the picture to remain in this bath for ten minutes at least in order that it may be perfectly 23 178. W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. fixed. After this time, its stay need only be prolonged until it has become of the desired tone and color; always remembering, that during the subsequent operation of drying, &., it will become of a somewhat darker tint than when taken out of the fixing bath. 66. On removal from this bath, the pictures must be allowed to soak in a large quantity of cold water for ten or twelve hours. There must not be very many in the dish at atime, and the water must be changed at least three times during that interval; they must then have boiling water poured over them (of course in a porcelain dish) two or three times, and lastly pressed dry, between sheets of clean blotting paper (14), (these may be used several times, if dried,) and then allowed to dry spontaneously in the air. When the pressure frame is not in use, a pile of these finished positives may be putin, and kept tightly screwed up all night; by this means they will be rendered perfectly flat and smooth. 67. The picture is now complete. It must be borne in mind, however, that the light and shade are reversed by this operation, the track of the luminous image along the paper being repre- sented by a white instead of by a black band, as in the original negative. Should it be desired to produce exact facsimiles of the negatives, it can be done by employing one of these positives as a negative, and printing other positives from it; in this way, the light and shade having been twice reversed, will be the same as in the original negative. 68. In some cases it may happen, that owing to a partial failure of gas, or imperfection in the sensitive sheet, an image may be so faint as to render it impossible to print a distinct posi- tive. The gap that this would produce in a set of pictures may be obviated, and with very slight sacrifice of accuracy, by form- ing an artificial or secondary negative in the following manner: 69. Print a copy on positive paper, of any intensity which will show the most distinct impression; then without fixing, and with a pair of sharp scissors, accurately and carefully cut out the part corresponding to the impressed portion of the negative. Hxpose this piece to the ight until it has become perfectly opaque, and then it can either be cemented over the imperfect original sheet, or on a clean sheet of paper, and used as an ordinary negative. It is astonishing what accuracy and quickness in cutting even the most intricate pictures, may be obtained with a little practice; the error of the scissors is generally within the error of meas- urement. J, W. Mallet on a Zeolitic Mineral. 179 Art. XIV.—On a Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle of Skye, Scotland; by J. W. MAuuet, Ph.D. THE specimen to which the following description refers has been in my possession for several years, and has attached to it a label bearing the name ‘“‘ Hypostilbite,” but analysis shows it to be a mineral quite distinct from Beudant’s hypostilbite of the Faroe Islands, and differing also from both stilbite proper and epistil bite. It occurs as a mass of minute crystals, resembling white loaf sugar, breaking easily, and crushing under the fingers into a coarsish crystalline powder. The separate grains viewed under the microscope appear as single prismatic crystals or little groups of three or four, nearly transparent, colorless, and with a pearly lustre, especially on two opposite faces,—closely resembling stil- bite in fact in general appearance. The crystalline form could not be satisfactorily made out, but seemed to be monoclinic. Hardness a little greater than that of calcite. Specific gravity =2'252. Strong muriatic acid poured over the pulverized mineral at night had the next morning formed a distinct jelly. Qn analysis the following results were aiid Atoms. Pe OL ON Sa iehdive ks S's o's 53°95 1:191—3: UTES Cc, SSS ale 84 Be en 20°18 "392—1- Pen SUN Ee aA 0S 12°86 459—1°17 Re Osis a ac trace Potash (with a little soda), .... ‘87 Wary che EU). Ce dade 12°42 1‘380—3'52 10023 Neglecting the small quantity of alkali, these numbers lead us nearly to the formula, 2(CaO, Si03)+2(Alz20s3, 25i03)+7HO, which differs completely from that of stilbite, CaO, Si03+ Al: Os, 8Si03 + 6HO, or that of epistilbite, CaO, Si0s + AlzOs, 3310:+5HO. The percentage of water is also far too small for hypostilbite. _ Ihe mineral appears to be a distinct one, and does not seem to have resulted from the gradual decomposition or change of any other; but it is perhaps scarcely desirable to add to the already numerous names of stilbite-like minerals by adopting a new one for this substance until additional analyses of these nearly related species shall permit of their more accurate classi- fication. see ae 180 RR. Clausius on the Application of the ART, XV.—On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. CLAuSIUs. [Translated for this Journal from Pogg. Ann. xeviii, 441, by W. G.]* 1. As the change in our views on the nature and relations of heat which is now comprised under the name of the “ mechan- ical theory of heat,” had its origin m the recognized fact that heat may be employed in producing mechanical work, we might a priort expect that, conversely, the theory which was originated in this way would contribute to put this application of heat in a clearer light. In particular the more general points of view ob- tained in this way should render it possible to form a certain judgment on the particular machines which serve for this appli- cation, whether they already perfectly answer their purpose, or whether, and how far, they are susceptible of improvement. To these principles, which hold good for all thermodynamic machines, there are to be added for the most important of them— the steam engine—some particular ones which incite us to submit it to a new investigation deduced from the mechanical theory of heat. Some important deviations from the laws which were formerly assumed as correct, or at least applied in calculation, have been found to hold good precisely for steam at its maximum density. 2. In this particular I believe that I must first remind the reader that it has been proved by Rankine and myself, that when a quantity of steam, originally at its maximum density, expands in a shell which is impermeable to heat, by pushing back with its full expansive force a movable portion of the shell, as for in- stance a piston, a portion of the steam must be precipitated as water, while in most previous writings on the steam engine, and among others in the excellent work of de Pambour,f the princi- ple of Watt, that under these circumstances the steam remains precisely at its maximum density, is assumed as the basis of the reasoning. Furthermore, in the want of accurate knowledge, it was for- merly assumed, in determining the volume of the unit of weight of saturated steam at different temperatures, that steam even at its maximum density still obeys the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac. In opposition to this I have already shewn in my first memoir on this subject,t that we may calculate the volumes which a unit of weight of steam assumes at different temperatures at its maximum density, from the fundamental principles of the me- chanical theory of heat, by means of the collateral assumption, that a permanent gas when wt expands at a constant temperature ab- * The importance of this memoir induces us to give it 7m extenso instead of at- tempting an abstract, which would scarcely do it De ae G. + Theorie des machines 4 vapeur, par le Conte F.M.G.de Pambour. Paris, 1844. + Pogg. Ann., Ixxix, 368. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 181 sorbs only so much heat as is consumed in doing the external work performed, and that we find in this way many values which, at the higher temperatures at least, deviate considerably from the laws of Gay Lussac and Mariotte. This view of the behavior of steam was not shared at that time even by authors who occupied themselves specially with the mechanical theory of heat. W. Thomson in particular con- tested the point. He found—even a year later in a memoir laid before the Royal Society of Edinburg—in this result, only a proof of the improbability of my collateral assumption. More recently however, he has himself, associated with J. P. Joule, undertaken to test the correctness of this assumption experimentally. They have in fact found by a series of well devised experiments con- ducted upon a large scale, that the assumption is so nearly correct for the permanent gases examined by them, namely, atmospheric air and hydrogen, that the variations may in most calculations be neglected. They found, however, greater variations for the non- permanent gas, carbonic acid, which they also studied. This corresponds entirely with the remark, which | added to the first mention of the assumption, that it is probably true for every gas recisely in the degree in which the laws of Mariotte and Gay ussac find their application to the same gas. In consequence of these experiments, Thomson has now also calculated the volume of saturated steam in the same way as myself. I believe there- fore that the correctness of this mode of calculation will gradu- ally be more and more fully recognized by other physicists also. — 3. These two examples will suffice to shew that the fundamen- tal principles of the former theory of the steam engine have undergone such important changes through the mechanical the- ory of heat that a new investigation of the subject is necessary. In the present memoir I have made the attempt to develop the principles of a calculation of the work of the steam engine, cor- responding with the mechanical theory of heat, in which however I have confined myself to the usual forms of the steam engine without at present entering upon the more recent attempts—cer- tainly well worthy of consideration—to apply steam in an over- heated state. In setting forth this investigation I shall only suppose as known my last published memoir* ‘On an altered form of the second principal theorem of the mechanical theory of heat.” It is true that it will in this way be necessary to deduce a second time in a somewhat different manner some results which are no longer new, but which were obtained at an earlier period by other writers or by myself; I believe however, that this repetition will be justi- fied by the greater unity and clearness of the whole. ‘I shall refer.in the proper places to the papers in which these results were first communicated, as far as they are known to me. * Poge. Ann., xciii, 481. 182 ~ R. Clausius on the Application of the 4. The expression that heat drives a machine, is of course not to be immediately referred to the heat, but is to be understood as signifying that some substance present in the machine, in conse- quence of the changes which it undergoes by heat, sets the parts of the machine in motion. We will call this substance the heat- utilizing substance (den die Wirkung der Warme vermittelnden Stoff ). | If toe a continually acting machine be in uniform action, all the changes which occur take place periodically, so that the same condition in which the machine, with all its single parts, is found at a particular time, regularly recurs at equal intervals. Conse- quently the heat-utilizing substance must be present in the ma- chine in equal quantity at such regularly recurring instants and must be in a similar condition. This condition may be fulfilled in two different ways. | In the first place, one and the same quantity of this substance originally existing in the machine may always remain in it, in which case the changes of condition which the substance under- goes during the action of the machine must take place in such a manner that at the end of every period it again returns to its initial condition, and then begins again the same cycle of changes. In the second place, the machine may each time give off, ex- ternally, the substance which has served during one period to produce the action, and in its place may take up again from with- out the same quantity of substance of the same kind. 5. This last process is the more usual one in machines applied in practice. It occurs, for instance, in the caloric air machines constructed up to the present time, inasmuch as after every stroke ‘ the air which has moved the piston in the cylinder is driven into the atmosphere, and an equal quantity of air is supplied from the atmosphere, through the feeding cylinder. The same is the case in steam engines without condensers in which the steam passes from the cylinder into the atmosphere, while, to supply its place, a fresh portion of water is pumped from a reservoir into the boiler. | Furthermore, at least a partial application is also made in steam engines with condensers of the usual arrangement. In these the water condensed from the steam is partly pumped back into the boiler, but not wholly, because it is mixed with the cold water used for condensation, and a portion of this con- sequently also passes into the boiler. The portion of the con- densed water not again applied must be thrown out with the rest of the water of condensation. The first process has recently been applied m those steam en- gines which are worked by two different vapors, as for instance — by water and the vapor of ether. In these the steam is con- densed only by contact with the metallic tubes which are inter- Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 183 nally filled with liquid ether and is then completely pumped back into the boiler. In like manner the ether vapor is con- densed in metallic tubes which are only externally surrounded by cold water, and is then pumped back into the first mentioned space which serves for the evaporation of the ether. In order to keep up a uniform action, therefore, it is only necessary to add as much water or ether as escapes through the joints from imperfections in the construction. 6. In a machine of this kind in which the same mass is always employed anew, the different changes which the mass undergoes during a period, must, as mentioned above, form a closed cycle, or according to the nomenclature which I have chosen in my former paper, a circular process (kreisprocess). ‘l'hose machines, on the other hand, in which a periodical taking up and throwing out of masses occurs, are not necessarily subject to this condition. They may however also fulfill it when they separate the masses _ again in the same condition in which they have taken them up. This is the case with steam engines with condensers, in which the water is thrown out from the condenser in the liquid state, and with the same temperature with which it passed from the condenser into the boiler.* In other machines the condition at the exit is different from that at the entrance. The caloric air machines, for instance, even when they are provided with regenerators, force the air into the atmosphere with a higher temperature than it previously had, and the steam engines without condensers take up the water asa liquid and let it pass out again asa vapor. In these cases, no complete circular process takes place, it is true; nevertheless we may always imagine a second machine joined to that which is really present, which takes up the mass from the first machine, brings it in any way into the initial condition, and then first lets it escape. The two machines together may then be regarded as a single machine which again satisfies the above condition. In many cases this completion may be performed without producing thereby too great a complication of the investigation. Thus for instance we may imagine a steam engine without condenser, re- placed by one with a condenser whose temperature is 100°, if we only assume that the first is fed with water at 100°. Hence it appears that, upon the supposition that the machines which do not in themselves fulfill the condition, may in this way be completed for the purpose of investigation, we may apply to all thermo-dynamic machines the theorems which hold good for the circular process, and in this way we arrive at some conclu- sions which are quite independent of the particular nature of the processes taking place in the several machines themselves. * The cooling water which passes into the condenser cold and out of it warm, is not here taken into consideration, since it does not belong to the heat-utilizing substance, but serves only as a negative source of heat. 184 _R. Clausius on the Application of the 7. I have represented in my former memoir the two principal theorems which hold good for every circular process, by the fol- lowing equations. (1) Q— A.W aQ (11) are Se —N, in which the letters have the same signification as they have there, namely— A is the equivalent of heat for the unit of work. : W represents the external work done during the cireular process. Q signifies the heat communicated to the changeable body dur- ing the circular process, and d Q an element of the same by which a quantity of heat taken from the body is considered as negative communicated heat. The integral of the second equation ex- tends over the whole quantity Q. T is a function of the temperature which the variable bod has at the moment at which it takes up the element of heat dQ, or, should this body have different temperatures in its different parts, of the temperature of the part which takes up dQ. As to the form of the function 7, I have shewn in my previous memoir that it is probably nothing else than the temperature itself, when this is estimated from the point which is determined by the re- ciprocal value of the coefficient of expansion of an ideal gas, and which must lie in the neighborhood of —273° C., so that when the temperature estimated from the freezing point is de- noted by ¢, we have (1) T=213--1 In future I shall employ the magnitude 7’ always with this sig- nification, and call it briefly the absolute temperature, remark- ing however that the conclusions arrived at do not in their essence depend upon this assumption, but remain valid even if we regard 7’ as a still undetermined function of the temperature. Finally, WV signifies the equivalent value of all the uncompen- sated changes occurring in the circular process.* * A species of uncompensated transformations requires here a special notice. The sources of heat which are to communicate heat to the variable body must have higher temperatures than this last, and conversely those which are to communicate to it negative heat, or to take away heat from it, must have lower temperatures. At every exchange of heat between the variable body and a source of heat, there is an immediate passage of heat from a body of a higher temperature to one of a lower temperature, and herein lies an uncompensated transformation which is so much the greater, the more different the two temperatures are. Whether these uncompensa- ted transformations, in the determination of which not only the changes of condition of the variable body, but also the temperatures of the sources of heat applied come into consideration, are embraced in WV or not, depends upon the signification which we attribute to the temperature occurring in equation (11). If we understand by this the temperature of the source of heat belonging to the element dQ, these trans- formations are included in V. If however we understand by it as is above deter- mined, and as if will be understood in this whole memoir, the temperature of the variable body, these transformations are excluded from V. Furthermore a remark Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 185 8. If the process have taken place in such a manner that it may be executed inversely in the same way, N=0. If however there occur in the circular process one or more changes of condi- tion which have taken place ina manner which cannot be in- verted, then uncompensated transformations have come into play, and the magnitude N has an assignable value, which how- ever can only be positive. : Among the processes to which this last finds an application, one in particular will in future be frequently discussed. When a quantity of gas or vapor expands, and in so doing overcomes a pressure corresponding to its whole expansive force, it may be again compressed by an application of the same force, in which ease all the phenomena with which the expansion was accompa- nied occur in an inverse manner. This is however no longer the case when the gas (or vapor) does not meet in expanding the full resistance which it could overcome, when, for instance, it streams from one vessel, in which it was under a greater pres- sure, into another in which a less pressure is exerted. In this case a compression is not possible under the same circumstances under which the expansion took place. The equation (Ir) gives us a means of determining the sum of all the uncompensated transformations in a circular process. As however a circular process may consist of many single changes of condition of a given mass, of which some have taken place in an invertable, and others in an uninvertable manner, it is in many cases of interest to know how much each single one of the last has contributed to the production of the whole sum of uncompensated transformations. For this purpose imagine that the mass, after the change in condition which we wish in this way to investigate, is brought back by any invertable process to its original condition. In this way we obtain a small circular process to which equation (II) is as applicable as to the whole. If we know also the quantities of heat which the mass has taken up during the same, and the temperatures belonging to it, the negative integral — -/- - gives the uncompensated change which has occurred in it. Now as the restoration which has taken place in an invertable manner can have contributed nothing to must be made on the minus sign before N, which does not occur in my previous me- moir in the same equation. This difference depends only on the fact that there the positive and negative sense of the quantities of heat is chosen otherwise than here. There a quantity of heat taken up by the variable body wis calculated as negative because it is lost for the source of heat, here on the other hand it is consid- ered as positive. All the elements of heat contained in the integral hereby change their sign, and with them at the same time the whole integral, consequently in order that the equation should remain correct notwithstanding the change, it was neces- sary to change the sign on the other side also. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIJ, NO. 65.——SEPT., 1856. 186 R. Clausius on the Application of the its increase, this expression represents the uncompensated trans- formation occasioned by the given change of condition. If in this manner we have investigated all the parts of the whole circular process which are not invertable, and thereby de- termined the values V1, Nz, &c., which must all singly be posi- tive, their sum gives the magnitude N with reference to the whole circular process, without its being necessary to bring into the investigation those parts of which we know that they are in- vertable. 9. If we now apply equations (1) and (11) to the circular pro- cess which takes place in the thermo-dynamic machine during a dni we see in the first place that if the whole quantity of eat which the mediating substance has taken up during this time is given, then the work is also determined immediately by the first equation, without its being necessary to know the nature — of the processes themselves of which the circular process con- sists. In similar generality we may, by the combination of the two equations, determine the work from other data also. We will assume that the quantities of heat which the variable body receives one after the other, as well as the temperatures which it has at the reception of each, are given, and that there is only one temperature over and above, whose magnitude is not known @ priori, at which a quantity of heat is still communica- ted to, or, if it be negative, taken from, the body. Let the sum of all the known quantities of heat be Y,, and the unknown quantity of heat Q,. Then resolve the integral in equation (11) into two parts, of which one extends only over the known quantity of heat Q,, and the other over the unknown quantity Y,. In the last part the integration may be directly executed, since 7’ has in it a constant value 7’,, and gives the expression Qo, 5 The equation (11) becomes hereby Qi Sf FRAN whence follows 0 Further we have according to equation (1), as, for our case, 9@=0,+ @: ; ie qh@itQo)- If we substitute in this equation for Q, the value just found, we have Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 187 Q1 d ey ware f - 7-0). 0 If we assume specially that the whole circular process is inverta- ble, according to the above N=0, and the foregoing equation becomes Q) W=5(@.-7, F #0) This expression is only distinguished from the previous one by the term — 7 es N. Since N can only be positive this term can only be negative, and we see from this, which is also easily de- duced from a direct consideration, that we obtain the greatest possible amount of work under the conditions above determined, when the whole circular process is invertable, and that the quan- tity of work is diminished by every circumstance which causes one of the special processes occurring in the circular process to be uninvertable. Equation (2) leads accordingly to the sought value of the work in a manner which is directly opposed to the usual one, inasmuch as we do not, as formerly, determine singly the quantities of work performed during the different processes and then add them together, but set out from the maximum work, and subtract from it the losses of heat which have arisen from the single incom- plete parts of the process. ) If we make the limiting condition with respect to the commu- nication of the heat that the whole quantity of heat Q, is com- municated to the body at a determined temperature 7’, the portion of the integration embracing this quantity of heat may be at once executed, and gives 1 ae! by which equation (3), which holds good for the maximum of the work, takes the following form, O° 7-7. (4) Wag In this special form the equation was already deduced by W. Thomson and Rankine from the combination of Carnot’s theo- rem, modified by me, with the theorem of the equivalence of heat and work.* 10. Before we can pass from these considerations, which hold good for all thermo-dynamic machines, to the treatment of the steam engine, some remarks with respect to the behavior of va: pors at a maximum density must first be brought forward, * Phil. Mag., July, 1851. 188 KR. Clausius on the Application of the — I have already in my former paper of 1850, on the motive power of heat, developed the equations which represent the two principal theorems ot the mechanical theory of heat in their ap- plications to vapors at a maximum density, and have applied them to deduce various conclusions. As I have however introduced in my last memoir ‘on a change in the form of the second principal theorem of the me- chanical theory of heat,” a somewhat different mode of repre- senting the whole subject, I consider it, as already mentioned, more advantageous for the sake of greater simplicity and breadth of view, to suppose only this last memoir as known. I will therefore again deduce in a different way the equations referred to from the results obtained in it. In this memoir it was assumed, in order to apply the general equations first established to a somewhat more special case, that the only foreign force acting upon the variable body which de- Serves consideration in determining the external work, was an external pressure, the force of which was equal at all points of the surface, and whose direction was every where perpendicular to it, and that further this pressure always changed only so slowly, and consequently was at every instant only so little dif- ferent from the expansive force of the body acting opposite to it, that in calculation the two might be considered as equal. If then we denote by p the pressure, by v the volume, and by 7’ the absolute temperature of the body, which last we will introduce into the formulas instead of the temperature as estimated from the freezing point, because they take a simpler form in this way, the equations deduced for this case are as follows, d (dQ\ d(dQ\_, dp eu) aa a)— alan=4- 97 dq dp (tv) “a =A.T Ti These equations are now to be applied to the still more special case of vapors at a maximum density. 11. Let the given mass of the substance whose vapor is to be considered be J/, and let this be contained in a completely closed extensible vessel, the part m in a state of vapor, and the re- maining part, 1/—m, in a fluid state. This mixed mass is now to form the variable body to which the previous equations are to be applied. If the temperature 7 of the mass and its volume v—that is to say, the content of the vessel—are given, then the condition of the mass, so far as it here comes under consideration, is thereby completely determined. Since namely, the vapor by supposition’ always remains in contact with the liquid, and consequently at a maximum density, its condition, as well as that of the liquid, Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 189 depends only on the temperature 7. It only remains to decide whether the quantity of the two parts which are present in dif- ferent conditions is determined. For this purpose the condition is given, that these two parts must together exactly fill up the content of the vessel. If we therefore denote the volume of the unit of weight of steam, at its maximum density, at the tempera- ture 7’by s, and that of a unit of weight of fluid by °, we must have: v=m.s+(M—m)e =m/(s—c)+ Mo, The quantity s occurs in what follows, only in the combination (s—c), and we will therefore introduce a special letter for this difference, putting (5) ah oma by which the previous equation becomes (6) v=mut+WlMae, and hence 7 v—Mo (7) m= ———, By this equation, m is determined as a function of 7’ and v, since wand o are functions of 7. 12. In order now to be able to apply equations (111) and (Iv) to d our case, we must first determine the quantities Jy and aid Let us first assume that the vessel expands so much that its content increases by dv, then a quantity of heat must be thereby communicated to the mass, which will in general, be represented dQ | by Pe dv. Now since this quantity of heat is only consumed in the forma- tion of vapor which takes place during the expansion, it may also be represented, if the heat of evaporation be denoted for the unit of mass by 7, by the expression dm r aa dv, and we may also put ) dQ \ dm du dv whence, since according to (7), dn Yor, dy w’ d we find (8) hae oh 0) U If we assume in the second place, that the temperature of the mass, while the content of the vessel remains constant, is in- 190 R. Clausius on the Application of the creased by dT, the quantity of heat necessary, will be repre- sented generally by dQ spt. | | This quantity of heat consists of three portions—1. The fluid portion, M—m of the whole mass, must be warmed by d 7; for which purpose, if c denotes the specific heat of the liquid, the quantity of heat (1/—m)cd T is necessary. 2. The portion m in the state of vapor must in lke manner be heated by d 7, but will thereby at the same time be so much compressed, that for the increased temperature 7-+d 7, it is again at a maximum density. The quantity of heat’ which must be communicated toa unit of mass of vapor during its compression, in order that it shall have at every density pre- cisely the temperature for which this density is a maximum, we shall denote for an increase of temperature of d 7; in general by hd Tin which h is a magnitude which is previously unknown as to its value, and even as to itssign. The quantity of heat neces- sary for our case, will hence be represented by mhd T. 3. In the process of heating, a small quantity of the previously fluid portion, passes into the state of vapor, which is represented generally by ri T, and which consumes the quantity of heat dm Tom at. In this, according to equation (7) dm v-Mo du Meda at... ehh ao ew a mdu Mda eae ee ae by which the previous expression becomes m du ,M doa = | Cac ace ae If we add these three quantities of heat together, and put their sum equal to iis T we have aT : dQ y do rae age (9) apa (e~< apytn(i-e-2. Sa) dQ dq 13. The first of these expressions for ay and q1 must now also, as is signified in equation (111), be differentiated, the first with respect to 7, and the last with respect to v. If we consider moreover that the quantity J/ is constant, the quantities u, % 7, Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 191 e and h, only functions of 7, and the quantity m only a function of Zand v we obtain : An d/jdQ\_ 1dr _r du (0) a7.) aca aT d (dQ\ __ h r du\dm wlan) = (-°-5 aaa or, if we put for ae its value 2 d (dQ h-c r du cat) Ga) ook geen By substituting the expressions given in (10), (11), and (8), in (111) and (Iv) we obtain the sought equations, which represent the two principal theorems of the mechanical theory of heat for vapors at a maximum density, namely dr dp (v.) qp te haA ou aa dp (v1.) r= A. Tus. and from the combination of the two, we also obtain dr r 14. With the help of these equations we will now consider a ease which will so often occur in what follows, that it is advan- tageous to fix, 4 priori, the results which refer to it. Let it namely be assumed that the previously considered vessel with its contents of partly fluid and partly vaporized mass, changes its volume, without any heat being added to or taken from the mass. Then together with the volume, the temperature and the quantity of that portion of the mass which is present in the form of vapor will change, and besides, a positive or negative external work will be done by the heat which produces the pres- sure of the vapor, since in the change of volume the pressure of the enclosed vapor which is exerted in the expansion overcomes an external force, and in the compression is overcome by an ex- ternal force. Under these circumstances, the quantity of the portion m, in the form of vapor, the volume v and the work W are to be de- termined as functions of the temperature T. 15. If the volume and the temperature are changed by the arbitrary infinitely small quantities dv and dT, the quantity of heat, which for this purpose must be communicated to the mass, will be expressed according to the foregoing by the sum dm dm does dv + [ (Af—m)c+mh+r qd wld f. 192 R. Clausius on the Application of the This sum must be equated to zero, in consequence of the condi- tion now laid down that heat must neither be communicated to nor taken from the mass. In this way we obtain, if we simply write dm for ora oat, the equation (13) rdm—+-m(h-c)d T+ Med T=0. If we substitute in this, according to (12) h-c= or es 7 ie’ ja and again write simply dr for ee T, since r is only a function of 7, we have rdm+mdr--d T+ Med T=0, or (14) d(mr)-dT+MedT=0. If we divide this equation by 7; and remember that d(mr) mr,,,_ ,/mr F - Fat Taal), we obtain mr aT As the specific heat of a liquid changes but slowly with the temperature, we will in what follows, always consider the quan- tity c as constant. Then the previous question may be inte- grated at once, and gives a + Mc log T’=const. or if the initial values of J 7, m, be denoted by 71, r1, m1, ge a ia (viz) o> aie IB op By this equation, m is also determined as a function of the tem- perature, if 7, as a function of the temperature, can be a priori considered as known. In order to give an approximate view of the behavior of this function, I have collected together in the following table some values calculated for a particular case. It is assumed namely that the vessel at the beginning contains no liquid water, but 1s exactly filled with steam at the maximum density, so that in the previous equation m, is to be put equal to J, and let now an expansion of the vessel take place. If the vessel should be Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 198 compressed, we could not make the assumption that in the be- ginning no fluid water is present, because then the vapor would not remain at a maximum density, but would be overheated by the heat produced during the compression. In the expansion on the other hand, the steam remains not only at a maximum density, but a part of it is in fact condensed, and it is precisely the diminution of m produced thereby, to which the table re- fers. The initial temperature is assumed as 150° C., and corres- ponding values of Z are given for the times when the tempera- ture has sunk by the expansion to 125°, 100°, ete. The tem- perature estimated from the freezing point is denoted by 4, as heretofore, to distinguish it from the absolute temperature repre- sented by 7. °. | t 150° | 125° | 100° | 15° | 50° | ose | ||| —_|—__|_ id 1 | 0956 | 0-911 | 0-866 | 0821 | 0-776 be | | | 16. In order to express the relation between the volume v and the temperature, we have in the first place equation (6), namely v=mu+Mo, The quantity o occurring here, which signifies the volume of a unit of weight of the liquid, changes very little with the temperature, and as besides the whole value of a is very small with respect to u, we may with the more propriety neglect the small changes which it undergoes, and we will there-. fore consider o and consequently also the product Jc as con- stant. We have therefore only to determine the product mu. For this purpose we only need to substitute in the equation (VJ) for r, the expression given in (VI,) whereby we obtain dp dp Me Zz (vi11.) mu = m, “(F5) we log T ’ s e e d . e The differential coefficient at which occurs here is to be looked dT on as known; »p itself is known as a function of the temperature, and consequently by this equation, the product mu is determined, and from it we obtain by addition of Mo the sought quantity v. In the following table, there is again collected a series of values of the fraction a which are deduced from this equation, 1 for the same case to which the foregoing table relates. For the sake of comparison, those values of -- are also added, which we . e + 1 e should obtain if the two assumptions usually made heretofore in the theory of the steam engine were correct. (1.) that the steam SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—~SEPT., 1856, 25 194 R. Clausius on the Application of the in expanding remains exactly at a maximum density, without partially precipitating, (2.) that it obeys the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac. According to these assumptions we should have git Vy P “ah | t 150° | 1960 | 100° | 75° | soe | 25° be 1 1:88 3:90 | 9:98 | 257 | sea | Vy , Mell 193 | 416 | 1021 | 2947 | 1071 pty 17. It remains finally to determine also the work done during the change of volume. For this purpose we have generally the equation 0 (16.) w= if pdv v1 Now according to equation (6) if o be regarded as constant: dv=d(mu) whence pdv=pd(mu) for which we may also write (17.) pais 8 Oa py eee d T. aT. ‘We might put in this for much the expression given by equa- tion (v1IT) and then execute the integration. We obtain the re- sult however at once in a rather more convenient form by the following substitution. According to (v1) we have and from this by employing equation (14): d Ligik murrd T= 5 [d(mr) + Mcd T]. Hence (17) becomes 1 pdv=d(mup) — 3a (mr)+ McdT', and by integrating this equation we obtain 1 (1x.) W=mup—m,u,p,+5[m,%1— mr + Me(T,-T)] whence W may be calculated, since the quantities mr and mu are already known from the foregoing equations. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 195 I have also carried out this calculation for the above special case, whereby I have obtained the values given in the table for ere of mass. The kilogram is selected as the unit of mass, and that is for the work done during the expansion by the unit i f 1 the kilogram-meter as the unit of work. For a the value found by Joule, 423:55, is employed.* For comparison with the numbers in the table I will also add, that we obtain for the work which is done during the evaporation itself, by the steam which overcomes the external counter-pressure, in the case of which 1 kilogram of water evaporates at the temperature of 150° and under a corresponding pressure, the value 18700. 15° «| 50° 25° ————— 63700 125° | 100° ee | W 0 11800 28200 M | ¢ | 150° 35900 | 49300 18. We turn our atten- tion now to the consideration of the steam engine itself. In the accompanying sche- matic figure, which is only intended to facilitate the general view of the whole series of processes connected with the action of a com- mon steam-engine, let A rep- resent the boiler, the con- tents of which are kept by the source of heat, at the constant temperature T. From this, a portion of the 1. 4 as a* the equivalent of work for the unit of heat, and the above number signi- fies that the quantity of heat which is able to warm 1 kilogram of water from 0° to 1°, when converted into mechanical work giy tity of k equal to 423-55 Kgr. M. 4 are nea demi 196 R. Clausius on the Application of the stant temperature of the condenser be called 7,.. During the con- nection of the cylinder with the condenser, the piston goes back again through the whole space which it previously passed over, and thereby all the steam which did not of itself pass directly into the condenser is driven into this and is here condensed. It only remains in order to complete the cyclus of operations, to bring back into the boiler the liquid which has arisen from the condensation of the steam. ‘This purpose is served by the small pump D, whose action is so regulated that during the ascent of the piston, it draws up exactly as much liquid from the conden- ser as has been brought into this last by the condensation of the steam; and this quantity of liquid is then forced into the boiler by the descent of the piston. When this has here become heated again to the temperature 7’,, everything is again in the initial condition, and the same series of processes can begin anew. We have here then to deal with a complete circular process. In common steam engines, the steam passes into the cylinder not only from one side, but alternately from both. This however produces only the difference that during an ascent and descent of the piston, two circular processes take place instead of one, and it is sufficient in this case also to determine the work for one of them in order to be able to deduce the whole work which is done during any time. 19. In this determination we will, as is customary, consider the cylinder as a shell which is impenetrable to heat, neglecting the exchange of heat which takes place during one stroke between the walls of the cylinder and the steam. The mass in the cylin- der can only consist of steam at a maximum density mixed with some liquid. It is: clear from the foregoing, that the steam can- not pass into the overheated condition during the expansion which takes place in the cylinder after cutting off its connection with the boiler, provided that no heat be communicated from without, but on the contrary that it must be partly precipitated, and in other processes to be mentioned farther on, which it is true might occasion a slight overheating, this is prevented by the fact that the steam in rushing into the cylinder always carries with it some liquid and remains in contact with it. The quantity of this liquid mixed with the steam is insignifi- cant, and as it is for the most part distributed through the steam * in fine drops, and consequently can rapidly participate in the changes of temperature which the steam undergoes during the expansion, we shall make no sensible error if we consider in cal- culation the temperature of the whole mass in the cylinder as the same for every determined instant of time. 7 : Furthermore, not to make the formulas too complicated at the outset, we will in the first place determine the whole work which is done by the pressure of the steam without taking into account Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 19% how much of this work is really useful, and how much on the other hand again is consumed in the machine in overcoming .the friction and in moving the pumps, which are necessary for the working of the machine, beside that indicated in the figure. This part of the work may also be subsequently determined, and subtracted, as will be shown farther on. It is moreover to be remarked with respect to the friction of the piston in the cylinder, that the work consumed in overcoming it is not to be considered as entirely lost, for by this friction heat is generated, and thereby the interior of the cylinder kept warmer than it otherwise would be, and consequently the force of the steam is increased. Finally, as it is advantageous to learn in the first place the action of the most complete machine possible before we study the influence of the particular imperfections which naturally occur, we shall add to this preliminary consideration two suppo- sitions which at a future time will be again given up. Namely, in the first place, that the conducting pipe from the boiler to the cylinder, and the waste-pipe from the cylinder to the condenser or to the atmosphere is so wide, or that the motion of the steam engine is so slow, that the pressure im that part of the cylinder which is in connexion with the boiler, is equal to that in the boiler itself, and in like manner, that the pressure on the other side of the piston is equal to the pressure in the condenser, or to the pressure of the atmosphere, and secondly, that no inju- rious space is present. : 20. Under these circumstances, the quantities of work done during a circular process, may be expressed without further cal- culation, with the help of the results obtained above, and give a simple expression as the sum. Let the whole mass which passes during the ascent of the piston from the boiler into the cylinder, be called M%, and let the part m, be in the form of vapor, and the part M—m, liquid. The space which this mass occupies is, if m, signifies the value of wu belonging to 7), m,uU,+Mo. The piston is accordingly lifted as high as this space underneath it becomes free, and as this happens under the action of the pres- sure p, belonging to 7’,, the work done during this first process, which we may call W,, is (18) W,=m,u, pPitMop,. Let the expansion which now follows be so far continued, until the temperature of the mass enclosed in the cylinder has sunk from the value 7’, to a second given value, 7,. The work which is done hereby, which we may call W,, is found immedi- ately from equation (tx), if 7’, is assumed in it, as the final tem- perature, and also if the corresponding values are substituted for the other quantities occurring in the equation, namely : 198 R. Clausius on the Application of the ] (19.) Wz= m2 uz p.—M, UP, +l", —M,%2+Me(T,-T,)]. In the forcing down of the piston, which now begins, the mass which at the end of the expansion occupied the space MoU, + Mo is driven from the cylinder into the condenser, whereby the con- stant counter pressure p, is to be overcome. The negative work which is thereby done by this pressure is: (20.) W,=—m,U, p,—Mop 0° While now the piston of the small pump rises so high that the space Mo becomes free under it, the pressure », which takes place in the condenser acts in its favor, and does the work (21.) W,=l p,. Finally, at the descent of this piston, the pressure p, which takes place in the boiler must be overcome, and does therefore the negative work : (22.) W,=—Ucp,. By the addition of these five quantities, we obtain for the whole work done during the circular process, by the pressure of the steam, or aS we may also say, by the heat, which we may call W’, the expression (=) We sim, Tr —MotatMc(T, - T,)|+m, Uz (P2-Po): From this equation, the quantity m, must be eliminated. This quantity, if we substitute for w, the value deduced from (v1), occurs only in the combination m,r,, and for this product equa- tion (VJ) gives the expression T., | vy Moto m,7, —* — Mc T, log —*. ee, ar 2 108 vip By substituting this expression we obtain an equation in which only known quantities occur on the right side, since the masses m, and M and the temperatures T,, T', and T,, are assumed as me d immediately given, and the quantities r, p and = are supposed to be known as functions of the temperature. 21. If in equation (xX) we put T, equal to T,, we obtain the work for the ‘case in which the machine works without expan- sion, namely: , (23) W'=m,u, (p,-Po) Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 199 If on the other hand, we make the assumption, that the ex- pansion is driven until the steam by the expansion has cooled from the temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, which, it is true, it is not completely possible to do, but which still forms the limiting case to which we must approximate as closely as possible, we need only put T,=7T, whereby we obtain Tae! (24) W'= Fm -Moo+ Me(T, -To)]- If we also eliminate from this m,7, by means of the before- cited equation, in which also we must put T,=T',, we have ae TT -T T \y* (x1) Was[ mr, Tr °+ Me{ 1, -Ty+To log 7°) | 22. If we write the foregoing equation in the following form, sd i Te 1 Aas 7) oy Wim, 7, See peat og erro ; the two products which occur herein, Mc(T,-7,) and m,7,, represent together the quantity of heat given out by the source of heat, during a circular process. The first is namely the quan- tity of heat which is necessary in order to heat the mass 1 which comes from the condenser in the fluid state, with the temperature T, up to 7,, and the last represents the quantity of heat which is required to convert the portion m, at the temperature 7’, into steam. Asm, is little smaller than J, the last quantity of heat. is far greater than the first. We will bring the factor belonging to Mc(7,-—T7,) into a somewhat different form, in order to be able to compare with each other more conveniently the two factors, with which these two quantities of heat are multiplied in equation (25). If then, for the sake of abbreviation, we introduce the letter z with the signification chee eee Pie eg * The foregoing equations, which represent the work under the two simplifying suppositions mentioned at the conclusion of $19, had been developed by me a long time since, and publicly brought forward in my lectures at the University of Berlin in the summer of 1854. When later in the year 1855 the Philos. Trans. of the Roy. Soc. of London for the year 1854 appeared, I found in them a memoir of Rankine “On the geometrical representation of the expansive action of heat and the theory of thermo-dynamic engines,” and was astonished to find that Rankine had arrived at the same time, quite independently and by a different process, at equations which not only in their essential contents, but also in their form, corresponded almost completely with mine, only that Rankine had not considered the circumstance that a quantity of liquid is mixed with the steam at its entrance into the cylinder. By the earlier publication of this paper the priority was lost for this part of my inves- tigation, nevertheless the correspondence was in so far a gratification to me, as it gave me a guarantee that the mode of considering the subject employed was really a natural one. (26) Zz 1 200 R. Clausius on the Application of the we have 1-z T,-T, z it) 7; =-1--2 aud we therefore obtain - is fig 1l-z et PR oa 108 Ta hee aan! 1-—z/z g2 gs =1l— -+—-+— : +545 +e) Z Z Zz 28 Tia ae he Equation (25) or (x1) thus becomes ' Z Z 1 (27) Wom, G+ Me(P,-1,)5.( 5 2 Z g2 9.3 + 3.4 + ete The value of the infinite series enclosed in the brackets which distinguishes the factor of the quantity of heat Mc(7,—T,) from that of the quantity of heat m, 7,, varies, as one may easily see, between 4 and 1 while z increases from 0 to 1. 23. We may also obtain the expression for the work very easily in another way, for this last considered case in which the steam cools by expansion to the temperature of the condenser, without following singly the different processes of which the circular process consists. In this case, namely, the circular pro- cess is invertible in all its parts—we may imagine that the evap- oration takes place in the condenser at the temperature 7’,, and that the mass MZ, of which the part m, is vapor, and the part (/—m,) is liquid, passes into the cylinder, and lifts the piston; that then during the descent of the piston, the steam is first compressed until its temperature has risen to 7’, and is there- upon forced into the boiler, and that finally by means of the small pump, the mass M is again forced asa liquid from the boiler into the condenser, and cools to the initial temperature Z’,. The substance passes here through the same states as for- merly, only in inverse order. The additions or subtractions of heat take place in a contrary direction, but in the same quantity and with the same temperature as the mass, and all the quanti- ties of work have contrary signs but the same numerical values. Hence it follows that in this case no uncompensated trans- formation occurs in the circular process. We must therefore in equation (2) put N=O, and thereby obtain the equation already cited in (3) in which only for the sake of correspondence, W’ is to be written in place of W. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 201 ra H(e.-7f 2) @, signifies herein for our case, the heat communicated in the boiler to the mass J, and we have therefore Q,=mM, ry +Mc (Fie ys Qi ae ‘ d : ae In determining the integral if. a the two single quantities of 0 heat contained in QY,, Mc(T,—T,) and m,r, must be particu- larly considered. In order to execute the integration for the first, we may write the element of heat d@ in the form Mcd 7, then this portion of the integral becomes During the communication of the last quantity of heat, the temperature is constantly equal to 7’,, and the portion of the in- -tegral relating to this quantity of heat is therefore simply aA 1 By substituting these values, the above expression for W’ be- comes the following. tise W' =| mr, +Me(T,-7,)-T ol fa +Meles 7) 1 1 T,-T T =3)mrs Te 4 Me(7,-T,+7, log 7%) | and this is the same expression as that contained in equation (x1), which we have previously found by the successive deter- mination of the single quantities of work done during the circu- lar process. 24. Hence it follows that 7f the temperatures at which the ‘substance conveying the action of the heat takes up the heat delivered by the source or gives out heat outwardly, are considered as previously given, then the steam engine, under the suppositions made in deducing equation (XI) is a perfect machine, inasmuch as for a definite quantity of heat communicated to it, it does as much work as, according to the mechanical theory of heat, is possible at the same temperatures. The matter is-otherwise however if we do not regard these temperatures as given a priori, but consider them as a variable element which must be taken into consideration in judging the machine. In consequence of the fact that the liquid, during its SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—-SEPT., 1856. 26 202 R. Clausius on the Application of the warming and evaporation, has much lower temperatures than the fire, and that thus the heat which is communicated to it must pass from a higher to a lower temperature, there is in V an uncompensated transformation which is not reckoned in the calculation, which with the reference to making the heat useful occasions a great loss. The work which can be obtained in the steam engine from the quantity of heat, m,r,+ Mc(T,—7',)=Q, is, aS we see from equation (27), somewhat smaller than Cat Pes Mo A ee If therefore the same quantity of heat could be communicated to a variable body at the temperature of the fire, which may be called 7’, while the temperature corresponding to the subtrac- tion of heat, remains as formerly 7’, the work possibly to be obtained in this case according to equation (4) would be repre- sented by Q, TT, rey er In order to be able to compare the values of these expressions in some examples, let the temperature ¢, of the condenser be fixed at 50° C., and let the temperatures 110°, 150°, and 180° C. be assumed for the boiler, of which the first two correspond about to the low pressure engine and to the common high pres- sure engine, and the last 1s to be regarded as about the limit of the temperatures used in steam engines in practice. For these cases, the fraction depending on the temperatures has the follow- ing value. t, | 110° 180° | Peels fi 1 150° 0°157 0°236 | 0287 Whereas the corresponding value for the temperature of 7’ of the fire, if we assume this only at 1000° C. is 0°746. 25. It is hereby easy to perceive what S. Carnot and after him many other authors have asserted, that in order to arrange machines moved by heat more advantageously, we must princi- pally endeavor to make the interval of temperature 7,—T, greater. Itis thus for example in the case of the caloric air machines only then to be expected that they will obtain an im- portant advantage over steam engines, when we succeed in mak- ing them work at considerable higher temperatures than steam engines, in which the danger of explosion forbids the applica- tion of too high temperatures. The same advantage may how- ever also be obtained with overheated steam, since as soon as the vapor is separated from the liquid, we may heat it still fur- Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 208 ther with as little danger asif it were a permanent gas. Ma- chines which employ the steam in this condition can unite many advantages of steam engines with those of air engines, and a practical result is therefore sooner to be expected from them, than from the air engines. In the above-mentioned machines in which, besides water, a second more volatile substance is applied, the interval (7’,—T7',) is made larger because 7’, is made lower. The idea has also sug- gested itself in the same manner to increase the interval on the upper side by adding a third fluid less volatile than water. The fire would then immediately evaporate the least volatile of the three substances; this, by its condensation, the second, and this the third. According to the principle it is not to be doubted that this combination would be advantageous, how great how- ever, the practical difficulties will be which are opposed to the execution, cannot 4 priori be determined. 26. Besides the imperfection of the common steam engines just mentioned, which is founded in their nature itself, these ma- chines have many other defects, which are to be attributed more to their practical construction. | One of these has already been considered in the above devel- opments, and is comprised in equation (xX), namely, that the ex- pansion cannot by any means be carried so far that the steam in the cylinder reaches the temperature of the condenser. If we take, for instance, the temperature of the boiler at 150°, and that of the condenser at 50°, we see from the table of § 16 that for this purpose the expansion must continue to 26 times the original volume, while in reality in consequence of many evils which occur in high expansions, we usually allow it to reach only 3 or _4, and at the utmost, 10 times the volume. Two other defects, on the other hand, have been expressly excluded in what precedes, namely, in the first place that the pressure of the steam in one part of the cylinder is less than in the boiler, and in the other part greater than in the condenser— and secondly, the presence of the injurious space. - We must therefore now enlarge our former views, in such a manner that these imperfections shall also be taken into consid- eration. (To be concluded.) 204 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Art, XVI.—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States’; by Asa GRAY. WHILE engaged in the preparation of a second edition of the Manuul of the Botany of the Northern United States, I was re- quested by an esteemed correspondent, upon whose judgment I lace great reliance, to exhibit, in a compendious and conyen- 1ent form, the elements of the flora I was occupied with. I ac- cede to this request only because I may be presumed to possess considerable facilities for collecting and correcting a portion of the required data. But I cannot command the time needed for a proper elaboration and discussion of these materials, nor have I any special aptitude for this kind of research. I may, how- ever, collect and arrange the principal data; for the use of those better qualified to discuss them, and to indicate their bearings upon many questions of the highest scientific interest, respecting the geographical distribution, the mutual relations, the nature, and the origin of the existing species of plants ;—questions some of them so speculative or so difficult that they are not likely to be conclusively answered in our day; others more nearly within our reach; but all perhaps capable of some elu- cidation from the critical comparison of the flora of any one arene region with the vegetation of other parts of the world. The work,* which forms the basis of the following statistics of the botany of the Northern United States, has now been ex- tended in geographical area beyond the limits of the Northern States, politically so called; inasmuch as this area includes Vir- ginia and Kentucky, and stretches westward to the Mississippi River. The southern boundary of 36° 30’ has been adopted (instead of Mason and Dixon’s line) because it coincides better than any other direct geographical line with the natural division between the cooler-temperate and the warm-temperate vegeta- tion,—between the flora of the northern and of the southern At- lantic states. Few characteristically southern plants advance to the north of it, and those chiefly on the coast of the low south- eastern corner of Virginia, in the Dismal Swamp, and the envi- rons of Norfolk. Could we vary the line where it intersects the longitude of Washington, carrying it north until it reaches James River, and thence due east again, the small quadrangle thus ex- cluded would exclude nearly all the properly southern indige- * Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States; second edition; inclu- ding Virginia, Kentucky, and all east of the Mississippi: arranged according to the Natural System; by ASA GRAY, (the Mosses and Liverworts by Wm. S. Suiut- vant). With 14 plates, illustrating the Genera of the Cryptogamia. New York: George P. Putnam & Co., 1856... Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 205 nous plants now comprised in the volume,* and mark the true division eastward between our southern and our northern bo- tanical regions, namely, at the northern limit of the Live Oak, the Long-leaved Pine, and the Black Moss (7%llandsia usneoides), which grows pendent from their boughs. On the Mississippi, the plant most southern in character which crosses the parallel is Jusswea repens. This sparingly extends up the Ohio to lat. 88°, where also the Taxodiwm reaches about as far north as on the Atlantic coast. In the elevated region through which the middle of our southern boundary passes, great numbers of northern plants are of course found to extend much farther southward. Our western boundary, the Mississippi River, while it takes in a considerable prairie-region, excludes nearly all the plants pe- culiar to the wide western woodless plains, which stretch from the Saskatchewan to Texas and New Mexico, and approach our ‘borders in Minnesota and Iowa. A list of the plants which we may be said to have derived from this region will be given here- after. The northern boundary, being that between the United States and British America, varies through about five degrees of lati- tude, and nearly embraces Canada proper on the east and on the * It would apparently exclude from the flora of the Northern States the follow- ing species :— Gordonia Lasianthus. Benzoin melisseefolium. Stuartia Virginica. Tetranthera geniculata. Zanthoxylum Carolinianum. Stillingia sylvatica. Berchemia volubilis. Quercus virens, Viburnum obovatum. “> s¢iherea, - Mitreola petiolata. Sagittaria falcata. Liatris odoratissima. Burmannia biflora. _ “paniculata. Tillandsia usneoides, Sericocarpus tortifolius. Smilax Walteri. Chrysopsis gossypina. “ lanceolata. Baccharis glomeruliflora. Zygadenus glaberrimus. Kalmia hirsuta. Mayaca Michauxii. Tlex Cassine. Pepalanthus flavidus. “ myrtifolia, Lachnocaulon Michauxii, “ — Dahoon. Vilfa Virginica, Gelsemium sempervirens. Ctenium Americanum, Forsteronia diffurmis, Uniola paniculata. Olea Americana. Paspalum distichum. Fraxinus platycarpa. . Digitaria. Probably a good many more southern species inhabit this corner of Virginia, of which I have as yet no indications. There is little doubt that the long-leaved Pine crosses the line, and perhaps an arborescent Yucca grows on the sea-shore.—Of char- acteristically southern trees that have found their way still farther northward on the coast, even beyond Virginia, I can only mentiun two, namely, the Red Bay (Persea Carolinensis) and the Bald Cypress (7axodium distichum), both found in Delaware, a little beyond lat. 38° 30’. Two other characteristic trees, viz. the Palmetto and ah aap grandiflora, stop about as far short of our line as the two former pass be- yond it. < 206 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. west; so that the volume in question probably contains nearly all the plants of Canada East, south of the St. Lawrence and of lat. 47°, and of Canada West, south of lat. 46°, or perhaps 45°. Our northern boundary rises highest at its western extremity, even to lat. 49°. But the botany of the district beyond Fond du Lac, lat. 47°, is little known. Probably many plants of the northwestern plains are to be found there, which are otherwise strangers to our region, as well as all or most of the species known to occur on the northern but not on the southern shore of Lake Superior.* A list of the additional Canadian species, as far as now known, is appended.t The simplicity of our flora, as a purely northern temperate one, is preserved by the absence throughout our limits of high mountains and of any considerable extent of elevated land, es- * The following Phenogamous plants, contained in Prof. Agassiz’s published list of the plants gathered on the north shore of Lake Superior, in his expedition made in 1848, are not included in the Botany of the Northern States, viz : Ribes oxyacanthoides. Tofieldia calyculata vel palustris. Lonicera involucrata. Carex Vahlii. Corispermum hyssopifolium. To which I may add, that obscure and ambiguous Grass, the Aira melicoides, Michx., (Graphephorum, Beawv.). The last two, viz., Zofieldia palustris and Carex Vahlii, with an interesting Fern, Allosorus acrostichoides, are in Prof. Whitney’s list (in Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District, 1851), and having been gathered on Isle Royale, strictly claim ad- mission into our Flora. But I was not aware in time that Isle Royale fell within the limits of the United States; and, seeing that in any case it geographically and botanically pertains to the northern shore, where the vegetation begins to display a subalpine character, which it does not upon the south side, I determined to take the southern shore of the lake for our boundary. + This list includes the few just enumerated as found on the immediate coast of Lake Superior, although only one of the seven, viz., Ribes oxyacanthoides, is truly Canadian. Three of them come from the northwest and west, and three from the Hudson’s Bay country. I exclude the introduced species, reckoning among these Hesperis matronalis, Sisymbryum Sophia, &c.: also all those mentioned as Canadian by Pursh, which have not been confirmed by later observers. Aquilegia vulgaris (A. brevistyla, Hook.). Aster Cornuti. Turritis patula. Gentiana acuta. “ __ retrofractra. Polemonium czruleum. Thlaspi alpestre (?) Corispermum hyssopifolium. Linum perenne. Eleaguus argentea. Oxytropis Lamberti (?)—the plant of — Tofieldia palustris. Quebec, so-called. Goodyera (Spiranthes, Hook.) decipiens. Ribes oxyacanthoides, Carex Vahlii. Lonicera involucrata. Graphephorum melicoides. (Pos sp. ?) Hieracium vulgatum. Elymus Europeus, ex Hook. Nardosmia frigida. Allosorus acrostichoides. Matricaria inodora. So far as we know at present, therefore, only 22 indigenous Phenogamous species and Ferns (of which 12 are also European) would therefore be added, by comprising Canada proper, that is, the country bordering the north of the St. Lawrence and of the Great Lakes. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 207 pecially at the north, and the consequent paucity of truly alpine or even subalpine species. We have an alpine region indeed; but it is restricted to a few isolated mountain-tops in the north- ern part of New England and New York, between or near lat. 44° and 45°. The White Mountains of New Hampshire fur- nish far the larger part, viz., the range strictly so called, with six or seven square miles (taken horizontally) of alpine region, of which the highest point slightly exceeds 6200 feet in eleva- tion, and its lower limit is about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, and Mount Lafayette (reaching to 5200 feet) along with other smaller patches, together making up almost as much more. Mount Katahdin in Maine (about 5300 feet high) may furnish a square mile or so of alpine region. The Green Mountains of Vermont (with a maximum elevation of 4360 feet) present mere | vestiges of alpine vegetation in one or two places; and two or three summits of the Adirondack Mountains of northeastern New York (with a maximum elevation said to exceed 5400) are of a more decidedly alpine character, but apparently of small extent and far from rich in species. The southern shore of Lake Superior affords no alpine and perhaps no strictly subalpine species; nor do any occur in the Alleghany Mountains, although they rise to above 5000 feet at one point in the south of Virginia,* and to 6000 and about 6300 in North Carolina. — Scirpus ccespitosus, Lycopodium selago, Andrea petrophila, and Cetraria Islandica, are the most nearly alpine species known in the Alleghany Mountains. As will be seen by the list on a following page, the number of our truly alpine species does not equal that of the southern plants which have extended into the low southeastern corner of Virginia. _ After that of Europe, no northern temperate flora of equal extent, and perhaps no flora of any large region, is so well known as that of the Northern United States, at least as to its Phanerogamia and highest Cryptogamia: and although very much still remains to be done, yet we are now in condition profitably to compare our vegetation with that of Kurope, and also, though less critically, with that of other parts of the north- ern temperate zone. The following tables exhibit the principal elements of our flora, and some of its relations to the Huropean, &c. : # * The White Top Mountain in Virginia, just within its southern boundary, is com- monly said to be about 6000 feet in elevation; but this is probably an exaggeration. 208 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. List of the Natural Orders of the Flora of the Northern United States, with the number of Genera and Species comprised in them,—distinguish- ing the introduced and the indigenous Species,—and of the indigenous Species common to this district and to Hurope. Ciass I. DICOTYLEDONA §S. EXOGEN A. Orders. Suscuass. I. ANGIOSPERM&. Ranunculacez, Magnoliacee, Anonacee, Menispermacee, Berberidacee, Nelumbiacee, Cabombacee, Nymphezacez, Sarraceniacee, Papaveracee, Fumariacee, Crucifere, Capparidacez, Resedacee, Violacer, Cistacez, Droseracex, Parnassiacex, Hypericacee, Elatinacee, Caryophyllacez, Portulacacex, Malvacee, Tilacee, Camelliacee, Linacee, Oxalidaceze, Geraniacee, Balsaminacez, Limnanthacee, Rutacezx, Anacardiacee, Vitacez, Rhamnacez, Celastracez, Sapindacez, Polygalacez, Leguminose, Rosacex, WholeNo., of Genera. bo — SS) DOH RNORNE NEE ND HEHE NDH OR OH WH HWNH HOR OH NDNHHE Owe be k= Co 0. of Gen duced (nat Iagenaus| ze a0 Species. Species. 20 6 2 1 3 5 1 1 1 2 x 2 5 3 1 16 14 1 1 P4 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 14 17 3 1 rf 6 1 2 1 1 1 2 if 1 2 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 1 | 33 | 14 17 5 Whole No. of. Species. Or — 1 Ne TTOWDNHNOOAIWNNN NO ATR OWRTOY RP OO TAT hD WOH KH DWH Oo a ‘3 | No, of Indigenous Species. aN iS HM ODdw dS OH KH or WH OS co a ae) WOOATAWFHNWANDNNN OR OHM OHO KP TO | No. of our Indigenous Species common to Europe. 10 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 209 Crass [—continued. No, of Intro- No. of our Whole No, of Gen- duced (niutu- No. of | Indigenous Orders, | osof | radigenous N04, *041F Soecien. | Talgenoue| Species See T Bea _ Species. is Re _ Europe. Calycanthacee, 1 1 3 3 Melastomacez, 1 1 3 3 Lythracez, 4 4 1 8 oe 1 Onagraceex, 9 9 36 36 10 Loasacee, 1 1 1 1 Cactaceze, 1 I 1! 1 Grossulacee, 1 1 4 7 1 Passifloraceze, il i 2 2 Cucurbitacez, 3 3 3 3 Crassulaceze, 3 3 1 6 5 Saxifragacee, 11 it 22 22 5 Hamamelacee, 3 3 3 3 Umbelliferze, 26 21 5 42 37 2 Araliacese, 1 1 6 6 Cornacee, 2 2 11 11 Caprifoliaceze, 7 7 27 27 3 Rubiacee, 9 i) 1 24 23 4, Valerianacex, 2 2 1 8 7 Dipsacee, 1 1 1 Composite, 83 67 27 300 273 9 Lobeliaceze, 1 1 12 12 1 Campanulacee, 2 2 5 5 1 EHricacee, 27 27 62 62 19 Galacinee, 1 1 1 1 Aquifoliacer, 2 2 10 10 Styracace, 3 3 5 5 Ebenacee, 1 L 1 1 -Sapotacee, 1 1 2 2 Plantaginacex, 1 1 2 8 6 1 Plumbaginacez, 1 1 1 1 1 Primulacez, 11 10 1 La 16 6 Lentibulacez, 2 2 12 12 4 Bignoniacee, 4 2 2 4 2 Orobanchacee, 4 4 5 5 Scrophulariacex, 26 24 11 65 54 10 Acanthacee, 2 2 3 3 Verbenacez, — 4 2 3 10 i Labiate, 33 21 22 71 49 4 Borraginaceex, 11 5 9 25 16 3 Hydrophyllacez, 4 4 11 PT Polemoniacex, 4 4 12 12 1 Convolvulace, ve 5 5 20 15 1 Solanacee, 6 2 6 10 4 Gentianacex, 9 8 3 27 24 2 Apocynaceee, 3 3 4. 4 | Asclepiadacee, a ae L | 22 | or: | SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. Py | 210 | Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. ' Crass [I1—continued. No. of Intro- _ No. of our | No. of Ben, No. of —§ Indigenous Whole duced (natu- i Rot |tadigenous TAH 2nd) cr peajes | Tadigengue | Species mie lied Py eree: Species, _ fl _|_ Europe. _ Oleacee, 5 4 1 10 9 Aristolochiacez, 2 2 6 6 Nyctaginacee, 1 1 1 1 Phytolaccacee, 1 1 1 1 Chenopodiacee, 9 7 11 21 10 6 Amarantacee, 6 5 9 14 5 Polygonaces, 4 3 10 32 22 6 Lauract , 4 4 5 5 Thymeleacee, 1 1 1 1 Eleagnacee, 1 1 1 1 Santalacese, 2 2 3 3 Loranthacee, 1 1 1 1 Saururacee, 1 1 1 1 Ceratophyllacee, 1 1 1 1 1 Callitrichaces, 1 1 3 3 3 Podostemacee, 1 t 1 1 Euphorbiacee, 9 9 5 33 28 Empetracee, 2 2 2 2 1 Urticacee, 11 10 4 19 15 1 Platanacee, 1 1 1 1 Juglandacee, 2 2 9 9 Cupuliferz, 6 6 25 25 1 Myricacee, 2 2 3 3 1 Betulacee, 2 2 10 10 4 Salicacese, 2 2 4 28 24 3 Subel. II. : GYMNOSPERM&. Coniferee, 8 8 20 20 2 Total, |) 622 | 522 | 223 | 17is | 1seD wes Crass II. MONOCOTYLEDONEA seu ENDOGEN &, Aracer, 6 6 7 7 2 Typhaceee, 2 2 7 7 6 Lemnacce, 1 d 5 5 4 Naiadacee, 5 5 16 16 12 Alismacer, 5 5 12 12 4 Hydrocharidacee, 3 3 3 3 2 Burmanniacee, 1 1 1 1 Orchidacce, 17 17 51 51 10 Amaryllidacez, 4 4 4 4 Hemodoracee, 3 3 4 4 Bromeliaceze, 1 1 1 1 Tridaceee, 2 2 6 6 Dioscoreacee, 1 1 1 1 Smilacez, 3 3 18 18 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 211 Crass I—continued. No. ef Gen. No of Intro-| No. of our Orders. Wovof | 072 with |rctized ang Whole Nol ratigenaus| ‘Specics. ; Genera, igdieprus adventive) of Species. Species. {common to ceua., Livi iat igs ay Species, — a _|__Europe. _ Liliacere, 12 9 4 28 24 5 Melanthacee, 12 12 21 21 1 Juncacee, 3 3 26 26 14 Pontederiacer, . 3 3 4 4 Commelynacez, 2 2 6 6 Xyridacee, 2 2 4 4 Eriocaulonacer, 3 3 5 5 i Cyperacee, 16 16 1 214 213 48 Graminee, 65 55 32 194 162 32 72 159 37 638 601 141 681 260 2351 2091 321 Total aa "94 mous Plants. Cuass III. ACROGEN.A. Equisetaceee, I I 10 10 8 Filices, 20 20 49 49 20 Lycopodiacee, 2 2 12 12 6 Hydropterides (Marsileacez), : = r ‘ 25 25 0 15 75 395 Crass IV. ANOPHYTA. Musci, 80 80 0 1 904 <1 8940) 1.986 Hepatice, 38 38 0 108 108 65 Total, 118 118 0 502 502 320 Total Cryptoga- : tase ane 143 0 B0t. 1 ST eae Total of the 4 937 B24 260 2928 2668 676 Classes, It is plain enough that the numbers in this tabular view must be essentially influenced throughout by one’s views as to the lim- itation of species and genera. In the hands of a few botanists, the flora of the Northern States might exhibit a somewhat smaller number of species than it here does; but with most, there would undoubtedly be a stronger tendency in the opposite direction. As it is obviously impossible at present to reduce the various ideas and shades of difference that prevail respecting species to one common standard, all that can be done is to indi- cate the bias, or what astronomers call the personal equation, of each author, which must be duly considered when different eee 212 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. floras are to be compared. This is not the place to discuss the principles involved in the general question, nor to explain or defend any conclusions to which I may have arrived ;—except to say that my determination of species in each particular case has been based on the evidence before me as irrespective of all theo- retical considerations as possibly could be. It is necessary to state, however, that, so far as I can judge, the authors of the principal and most esteemed recent Huropean Floras, if in my place, would be likely to increase the present number of our Phznogamous plants and Ferns about five per cent. One school, indeed, would doubtless add at least ten or twelve per cent. to the species here received, and give results quite incommeasurable with my own. I can only say, on my own part, that an en- larged experience certainly inclines one to take broader views of species than those which prevail among the generality of European botanists. The numerical comparison of our Phenogamous with our Cryptogamous species, however interesting it might become in a complete flora, is here of little moment; only the higher Cryp- togamia being included. Moreover, it should be noted that the Musci and Hepatice enumerated in the above table are those of a geographical area about twice that of the higher or Acrogen- ous Cryptogamia and the Phenogamia. For the distinguished American muscologist who elaborated these two orders for our ‘Botany of the Northern States,’ anxious to afford facilities for the study of our mosses throughout the country, has included all known to him within the whole United States east of the Mis- sissippi, and even some as yet found only to the north and west of these limits. It is evident, also, that the number of forms admitted as species is proportionally larger in these two orders than in the rest of the work. On the other hand it is to be con- sidered how little our mosses have as yet been collected and studied, and how likely it is, in view of their general wide range, that most of these outlying species may yet be detected within the Northern States, including Virginia and Kentucky. We naturally restrict our attention mainly to the Phzenoga- mous vegetation, as’ best known in all countries and affording the most precise data for comparison. And we exclude at once the 260 introduced species, most if not all of which have become denizens of our country since its settlement by Kuropeans, and in consequence of that settlement;—leaving the question of their origin, introduction, &c., for future consideration. ‘Their admis- sion into the account in the comparing our flora with that of Kurope, as has been done, seriously vitiates our conclusions.* * Thus Mr. Watson, as cited by Alph. DeCandolle (Geogr. Bot. p. 511) enumer- ates 602, out of 1428 phenogamous British plants, as common to Great Britain and America. I count only 821 out of 2091 phznogamous species indigenous to the Northern United States as indigenous also to Europe. . Statistics of the Flora of the Northern‘ States. 213 The numerical elements of our Phenogamous flora, consid- ered as to classes, are, as the tabular view shows: Dicotyledones or Exogene, 1490 species in 522 genera. Monocotyledonez or Endogene, 601 . 159°. 54 Total Phenogamous indigenous plants, 2091 4 OST us Or about 24 Dicotyledonous to one Monocotyledonous species. Their distribution among the 132 Natural Orders represented in our flora (Resedacee and Dipsacee of the above table being excluded, as having no indigenous representatives), is shown in the following: List of the principal Phenogamous Natural Orders represented in the flora of Northern United States, arranged according to the number of indigenous species they severally comprise. Species | Species. Composite, 273 Liliacez, 24 about 4th of the 2091 Phanerogamia. Rubiacez, 23 Cyperaceze, about 75th, “ 213 Saxifragacee, 22 Graminez, about 75th, “ 162 Polygonacee, 22 Leguminose, about 3th,“ 91 Asclepiadacez, 21 Rosacez, about sgth, “ 71 Melanthacee, 21 Ericacez, 62 Coniferz, 20 Scrophulariacez, 54 Violaceee, Hypericaceze, and Orchidacez, 51) Smilaceze, each 18 Ranunculacez, 49 Primulaceee, Borraginacee, Labiate, 49 and Naidacee, each 16 Cruciferee, 46 Convolvulaceze and Urticaceer, Umbellifere, 37; each, 15 Onagracee, 36 Polygalacee, 13 Caryophyllacez, 30 Lobeliaceze, Lentibulacee, Pole- Euphorbiacee, 28 moniacez,and Alismacee,each, 12 Caprifoliaceze, 27 Cornaceee, and Hydrophyllacez, Juncaceee, 26) each, i Cupuliferz, 25 Sapindaceee, Aquifoliaceee, Che- Salicaceee, 24) nopodiaceee, and Betulacee, Gentianacee, 24| each, 10 Only 46 of our orders have 10 or more indigenous species: 63 orders have from 2 to 9 species, and 28 orders are represented each by a single species. The average allows 15-09 species to an order. Alphonse De Candolle and others have remarked that in almost every flora of the temperate zone which is pretty thoroughly known, the eight or nine largest families comprise half of its Pheenogamous plants. In the present case the first nine families, having 1026 species, lack nineteen of making half; the sum of ten families exceeds the moiety by thirty. ‘The result is nearly the same as that brought out by De Candolle from a similar schedule, tabulated by him from Beck’s Botany of the Northern 214 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. and Middle States, north of Virginia, 1833, although the elements are considerably different and the ten largest orders are not the same throughout.* Moreover, our ten predominant families do not properly cor- respond with the ten mentioned by De Candolle as generally pre- dominant in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere: viz. “of the first rank, Composite, Graminee, Cyperacee, Legu- minose ; then the Crucifere, Umbellifere, and Caryophyllacee, and then, though less decidedly, the Labiate, Rosacee, and Scrophu- lariacee.t Nor would they do so if, by dividing the’ Hricaceze into smaller orders, we were to exclude that family from the list of those (eleven in number) which severally comprise not less than two per cent of our phznogamous species. ‘The three most predominant families accord indeed with De Candolle’s conclu- sion, only the Cyperacee with us are remarkable for surpassing the Graminee. But the next three in our list are quite differ- ent, even if we omit Hricacee, being Rosacee, Scrophulariacee, and Orchidacee ; and all three of De Candolles second rank fall be- low our first ten; and one of them, the order Caryophyllacee would fall still lower, if it were not reinforced by the Lllecebrea, so generally regarded as a distinct family. : It is easy to see that these differences are owing to the unusual richness of our flora in Cyperacee (chiefly in Carices), and to our poverty in Crucifere, Umbellifere, Caryophyllacee, and Laliate, especially in the second and fourth, at least as compared with corresponding parts of Europe. * The schedule drawn from Beck’s Botany is as follows : Composite, 265 Graniinee, 169 Cy peracee, 157 Rosacee, 97 : Amentacee, 94 | ==1066 species out of 2125 Phenogamou Leguminose, 80 plants. Labiate, 59 Ranunculacee, : 50 \ Scrophulariacez, 48 Orchidacez, 47 J The differences are readily to be accounted for. 1. The substitution of Amentacee in this list for Hricacee in the other, results from the former Jussizean order having been preserved entire by Beck, but distributed into several in the present work; while I have admitted the order Hricacee in its most extensive sense. 2. The precedence of Cyperacece to Graminee in my list,-which appears not to be the case in corres- ponding floras of the Old World.—is wholly owing to the great increase in the num- ber of Carices, in which the Northern United States are absolutely very rich ; which increase has resulted from the remarkable attention and repeated elaboration this genus has received since Dr. Beck’s time, from several hands, and perhaps also from a minuter discrimination of the species than in other families. 8. The order Rosacee, which strangely takes precedence of the Leguminose, is unduly expanded by a crowd of nominal or traditional species, and has four times as many introduced species as the latter family. 4. The naturalized plants being included, alters the proper proportion of most of these orders, and swells the number of the Phenoga- mous plants to 2125, while we count only 2091 truly indigenous species within an area about one-half larger and now much more thoroughly known. + Alph. De Candolle: Geogr. Bot., p. 1245. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 215% J must not stop here to compare our flora with that of Europe as respects the proportions of the predominant families. The data on our part for such comparison are recorded above. I pass on to notice some charucteristic features which depend upon positive differences in the families. The orders represented in the N. European flora and not in ours are the Resedacee, Frankeniacee, Tamariscinece, Zygophyl- lacece, Dipsacece, Globulariacee, and Butomacee ;—all very small orders; five of the seven are not represented at all by indigen- ous species in North America; two of them are represented on our continent in what answers to the Mediterranean region. Of our 132 orders none is peculiar to our district, and only two are restricted to the United States; namely, Loamnanthacee, of one species in the Northern States and one or two in Call- fornia, and Galacinece, of one genus and species,—a genus incertee sedis, rather than an order. Our orders peculiar to America are the following :— Sarraceniacese, Cactacesze, Hydrophylacee, Limnanthacee, Galacinese, Bromeliacee ; Loasaceze, all of which, except Galacinee and perhaps Bromeliacee, are also represented on the western side of our continent. Besides these the following 19 orders are extra-Huropean. Those which have known representatives in western North America, that is, in Oregon and California, are repeated in the second column; those known in corresponding parts of eastern Asia, i.e. in Japan, China, and the Himalayas, in the third column. * | Exira-EHuropean Orders not peculiar to America. Extra-European Orders of the Also represented in Western, Represented in Japan, China, Flora of the Northern States. N. America. or Himalayas. Maygnoliacee. Magnoliacee. Anonacee. Anonacee. Menispermacee. Menispermacee. Nelumbiacee. Cabombacez. Calycanthacee. Melastomacee. Passifloracee. Hamamelace. Sapotacee. Bignoniacee. Nyctaginacee. Phytolaccacee. Saururacese. Podostemacee. Burmanniacee. Heemodoracez. Commelynacez. Xyridacee. Bignoniacee (Martynia) ? Nyctayinacee. Phytolaccacee. Saururacee. Nelumbiacez. Cabombacez. Calycanthacee. Melastomaceee. Passifloraceze. Hamamelacee. Sapotacee. Bignoniacee. Nyctaginacee ? Phytolaccacee. Saururaces. Podostemacee. Burmanniacee. -|Commelynacee. Xyridacez. 216 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Thus it appears, 1, that, of our 19 extra-Huropean orders not peculiarly American, only 3 or 4 are represented on the western or Pacific side of the United States, while all but one are repre- sented in the corresponding parts of Hastern Asia ;—indicating a curious analogy in the vegetation of the eastern sides of the two great continental masses in the northern hemisphere, which is also borne out, though not so strikingly, in a comparison of the enera. : 2. That the flora of the Northern United States is remarkably rich in ordinal types, as compared with Europe, which, (exclu- sive of the Mediterranean region, furnished with two or three), has only seven orders that we have not, while we have 26 that are wholly unknown to the Kuropean flora. 38. And it is worth noticing that our additional or character- istic orders are all of warm-temperature or sub-tropical general character (which is the more remarkable when the lower mean temperature of the year as compared with that of Western Hu- rope is considered): all of these 26 orders have their principal development in the tropical regions, excepting six of the smaller ones; and three of these have tropical or sub-tropical repre- sentatives. 4. But the peculiar and extra-EKuropean families do not pre-. dominate, nor overcome the general Huropean aspect of: our vegetation, on account of the fewness of their species. Of the largest in our flora (Hydrophyllacee) we count only 11 species; and the whole 26 orders give us only 64, or barely three per cent of our phenogamous species. Our Phenogamous genera, 681 in number, average three spe- cies apiece. Far the largest genus is Carex, with 182 species. On the other hand one half of our genera are represented by single species; and about 92 of these are monotypic, having only a single known species. | The genera which are strictly confined within the geographical limits of this work are only three, namely, Nap@ea, Sullivanitia, and Hemianthus (the last a dubious genus); and all three are monotypic. The number of our genera which have no indigenous repre- sentatives in Kurope appears to be 353, or twelve more than half of our whole number, (the naturalized plants being of course excluded), belonging to 95 families. In the following table (which is hastily prepared, and likely to contain not a few errors), our extra-Kuropean Phzenogamous genera are enumerated, under their respective families, and their distribution in longitude is attempted to be given in the two parallel columns. 7 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 217 Phenogamous Genera of the Flora of the Northern United States not common to Hurope, with indications of their distribution westward, and in Eastern Temperate Asia. | Orders. Ranunculacee. Magnolracec. Anonacee. Menispermacee. Berberidacece. Nelumbiacee. Cabombacec. Sarraceniacee. Papaveracee. Fumariacee. Crucifere. Capparidacee. Violacec. — Cistacee. Hypericacee. Caryophyllacee. Portulaccacee. a Malvacee. Camelliacee. Limnanthacee. Rutacee. Extra-European GenerajAlso occurring in W. N.|Occurring in E. Asia, of Eastern N. Aimer- |America, i. e., in Ore-|i.e., in Japan, China, or ica. Trautvetteria. Zanthorhiza. Hydrastis. Cimicifuga. Magnolia. Liriodendron. Asimina, Menispermum. Cocculus. Calycocarpum. Caulophyllum. Diphylleia. J effersonia. Podophyllum. Nelumbium. Brasenia. Sarracenia. Stylophorum. Sanguinaria. Adlumia. Dicentra. Jodanthus. Leavenworthia. Polanisia. Solea. Hudsonia. Lechea. Ascyrum. Elodea. Anychia. Mollugo. Sesuvium. Talinum. Claytonia. Callirrhoe. Napa. Sida. Kosteletzkya. Gordonia. Stuartia. Floerkea. Zanthoxylum. Ptelea. gon and California. Trautvetteria. Cimicifuga. Dicentra. Mollugo. Sesuvium., Talinum. Claytonia. Sida, Kosteletzkya. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. ‘65,—SEPT., 1856, 28 Himalayas. Trautvetteria, Cimicifuga. Magnolia. Cocculus. Podophyllum. Nelumbium. Brasenia. Stylophorum, Dicentra. Polanisia. Mollugo. Sida. Gordonia, Stuartia. Zanthoxylum. 218 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Orders. Vitacec. Rhamnacee. Sapindacee. Leguminose. Rosacece. Calycanthacee, Melastomacee. Lythracee. Onagracee. Loasacee. Cactacee. Cucurbitacece. Crassulacee. Sazifragacee. Table continued. Extra-European Genera Also occurring in W. N. pean in E. Asia, i. e. of Eastern N. Amer- Ampelopsis. Berchemia. Ceanothus. Aésculus. Negundo. Crotalaria. Dalea. Petalostemon. Amorpha. Robinia. Wistaria. Tephrosia. Adschynomene. Desmodium. Lespedeza. Stylosanthes. Apios. Rhynchosia. Galactia. Amphicarpea. Clitoria. Centrosema. Baptisia. Cladrastis. Cassia. Gymnocladus. Gleditschia. Desmanthus. Schrankia. Gillenia. Dalibarda. Calycanthus. Rhexia. Ammannia. Neszea. Cuphea. (Enothera. Gaura. Jussiza. Proserpinaca. Mentzelia, Opuntia. Sicyos. Kchinocystis, Melothria. Penthorum. |Astilbe, America, i. e. in Ore- gon and Cal. fornia. Ceanothus. /¥sculus. Negundo. Dalea. Petalostemon. Amorpha, Desmanthus. Calycanthus. Ammannia. (Enothera. Gaura. Mentzelia. Opuntia. Sicyos. in Japan, China, or Himalayas. Ampelopsis ? Berchemia. Adsculus. Negundo. Crotalaria. Wistaria. Tephrosia. Aeschynomene. Desmodium. Lespedeza. Rhynchosia. Clitoria. Cassia. Gleditschia. Desmanthus. Ammannia. Jussiza. Sicyos, Penthorum. | Astilbe, Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States 219 Table continued. Extra-European Genera)Also occurring in W.N. Occurring in E. Asia, i. e. of Eastern N. Amer-| America, i. e. in Ore- Orders. Hamamelacee. Umbellifere. Cornacec. Caprifoliacee. Rubiacee. Composite. Boykinia. Sullivantia. Heuchera. Mitella. Tiarella, Itea. Hydrangea. Philadelphus. Hamamoelis. Fothergilla. Liquidambar. Crantzia. Polytznia. Archemora. Tiedemannia. Thaspium. Zizia. Discopleura. Cryptotenia. Osmorhiza. Eulophus. Erigenia. Nyssa. Symphoricarpus. Diervilla. Triosteum. Spermacoce. Diodia. Cephalanthus, Mitchella. Oldenlandia. Mitreola. Spigelia. Polypremum. ‘Vernonia. Elephantopus. Sclerolepis. Liatris. Kuhnia, Mikania. Conoclinium. Adenocaulon. Sericocarpus. Diplopappus. Boltonia. Brachycheta, Bigelovia, gon and California. Boykinia. Heuchera. Mitella. Tiarella. Philadelphus. Thaspium. Osmorhiza. Symphoricarpus. Cephalanthus. Adenocaulon. Sericocarpus. Diplopappus. in Japan, China, or Himalayas. Mitella. Tiarella, Hydrangea. Philadelphus. Hamamelis. Liquidambar. Archemora. Cryptotenia. Osmorhiza. Diervilla( Weigela). Mitchella. Oldenlandia. Mitreola. Vernonia. Elephantopus. Diplopappus. 220 Orders. Hricacee. Galacinea. Aquifohacee. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Table continued. of Eastern N. Amer- ica. Chrysopsis. Pluchea. Baccharis. Polymnia. Chrysogonum. Silphium. Parthenium. Iva. Tetragonotheca. Eclipta. Borrichia. Heliopsis. Echinacea. Rudbeckia. Lepachys. Helianthus. Actinomeris. Coreopsis. Verbesina. Dysodia. Hymenopappus. Helenium. Leptopoda. Baldwinia. Marshallia. Erechthites. Cacalia. Krigia. |Cynthia. Nabalus. Troximon. Pyrrhopappus. Gaylussacia. Chiogenes. Epigea. Gaultheria. Leucothoé. Oxydendrum. Clethra. Kalmia. Menziesia. Rhodora. Leiophyllum, Pterospora. Sch weinitzia. Galax. Nemopanthes. Extra-European Genera;Also occurring in W. N. Occurring in E. Asia, America, i e. m Ore-| i.e in Japan, China, gon and Cahifornia. or Himalayas. Chrysopsis. Pluchea. Baccharis. Kclipta. Rudbeckia. Helianthus. Coreopsis. Hymenopappus. Helenium. Cacalia. Troximon. Gaultheria. Clethra, Kalmia. Menziesia. Pterospora. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Orders. Styracacee. Sapotacee. Primulacee. Bignoniacee. Orobanchacee. Scrophulariacee. Acanthaceea. Verbenacea. Labiate. Borraginacee. Hydrophyllacee. Polemoniacea. Table continued. Extra-European Genera]Also occurring in W. N.|Occurring in E. Asia, of Eastern N. Amer- Halesia. Symplocos. Bumelia. Dodecatheon. Tecoma (also Catalpa.) Bignonia. Epiphegus. Conopholis. Aphyllon. Collinsia. Chelone. Pentstemon. Mimulus. Conobea. Herpestis. Ilysanthes. Hemianthus. Synthyris. Buchnera. Seymeria. Gerardia. Schwalbea. Gelsemium. Dianthera. Dipteracanthus, Lippia. Callicarpa. Phryma. Trichostema. Isanthus. Cunila. Pycnanthemum. Hedeoma. Collinsonia. Monarda. Blephilia. Lophanthus. Cedronella. Synandra. Physostegia. Onosmodium. Hydrophyllum. Nemophila. Ellisia. Phacelia. {Phlox. America, i.e. in Ore- gon or California. Dodecatheon. Aphyllon. Collinsia. Chelone. Pentstemon. Mimulus. Herpestis. Synthyris. Trichostema. Pycnanthemum. Lophanthus. Physostegia. Hydrophyllum. Nemophila. Ellisia. Phacelia, Phlox. 221 i. e. in Japan, China, or Himalayas. Symplocos. Tecoma (also Catalpa.) Herpestis. Ilysanthes. Buchnera. Gelsemium. Dipteracanthus. Callicarpa. Phryma. Hedeoma, Lophanthus. Phlox. 222 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. — Orders. Convolvulacee. Gentianacee. Apocynacee. Asclepiadacee. Oleacea. Nyctaginacee. Phytolaccacea. Chenopodiacea., Amarantacee. Lauracee. Thymeleacee. Lleganacea. Santalacee. Loranthacee. Saururacea. Podostemacee. Euphorbiaceae. Urticacee. Juglandacee. Table continued. Extra-European Genera, Also occurring in W. N.jOccurring in E. Asia, America, ie in Ore-| i.e. in Japan, China, of Eastern N. Amer- ica. Pyxidanthera. Stylisma. Dichondra. Sabbatia. Frasera. Halenia. Bartonia. Obolaria. Amsonia. Forsteronia. Asclepias. Acerates. Enslenia. Gonolobus. Chionanthus. Forrestiera. Oxybaphus. Phytolacca. Cycloloma, Montelia. Acnida. Iresine. Freelichia. Persea. Sassafras. Benzoin, Tetranthera. Direa. Shepherdia. Comandra. Hamiltonia. Phoradendron. Saururus. Podostemon. Cnidoscolus. Acalypha. Tragia. Stillingia. Croton. Crotonopsis. Phyllanthus. Pachysandra. Laportea. Pilea. Boehmeria. Planera. \Carya. gon and California. Frasera. Asclepias. Oxybaphus. Tetranthera. Comandra. Phoradendron. Acalypha. Croton. or Himalayas Halenia. Amsonia. Oxybaphus. Benzoin. Tetranthera. Saururus. Acalypha. Stillingia. Croton. Phyllanthus. Pachysandra. Boehmeria. ~ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 223 Orders. Myricacee. Conifer. Aracee. Alismacee. Hydrocharidacee. Burmanniacee. Orchidacec. Amaryllidacec. Hemodoracee. Bromeliacee. LIridacec. Smiliacec. Liliacee. Melanthacece. Pontederiacec. Commelynaceee. A yridacee, Kricaulonacea. Table continued. Extra-European GenerajAlso occurring W. N.Occuriing in E. Asia, America, ie in Ore- i.e. in Japan, China, ot Eastern N. Amer- ica. Comptonia. Taxodium. Thuja. Ariszema. Peltandra. Symplocarpus. Orontium. Echinodorus. Limnobium. Burmannia. Arethusa. Pogonia. Calopogon. Tipularia. Bletia. Aplectrum. Pancratium. Agave. Hypoxys. Lachnanthes. Lophiola. Aletris. Tillandsia. Sisyrinchium. Trillium. Medeola. Clintonia. Yucca. Uvularia. Prosartes. Melanthium. Zygadenus. Stenanthium. Amianthium. Xerophyllum. Helonias. Chamelirium. Pontederia. Heteranthera. Schollera. Commelyna. Tradescantia. Mayaca. Xyris. Peepalanthus. Lachnocaulon. gon and California, _ Thuja. Symplocarpus. Sisyrinchium. Trillium. Clintonia. Yucca. Prosartes. Xerophyllum. or Himalayas. Thuja. Ariszeema. Symplocarpus. Burmannia. Trillium. Clintonia. Uvularia ? Zygadenus. Commelyna. Tradescantia. Xyris. 224 Table continued. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Orders. ee Cyperacee. Graminee. {Extra- European Genera| Also occurring in W. N.\Occurring in E. Asia, of Eastern N. Amer- 1ca. Kyllingia. Dulichium. Hemicarpha. Fuirena. Psilocarya. Dichromena. Ceratoscheenus. Scleria. Zizania. Vilfa. Sporobolus. Muhlenbergia. Brachyelytrum. Aristida. Ctenium. Bouteloua. Gymnopogon. Leptochloa. Tricuspis. Diarrhena. Eatonia. Bryzopyrum. Uniola. Arundinaria. Gymnostichum. Amphicarpum. Paspalum. Cenchrus. Tripsacum. Sorghum. 353 Ametica, 1. e. in Ore- gon and California. Vilfa. Sporobolus. Muhlenbergia. Bonteloua. Brizopyrum. Cenchrus. 87 i.e. in Japan, China, or Himalayas. Kyllingia. Fuirena. Scleria. Vilfa. Sporobolus. Aristida. Leptochloa. Arundinaria. — Paspalum. Cenchrus. Sorghum. 101 That is, 87 of our 353 extra-Huropean phzenogamous genera, or 24 per cent are common to Western North America, and 101, or 28 per cent to Hastern temperate Asia. Jour per cent more of our characteristic genera are shared with an antipodal region than with the neighboring district of W. N. America. And the number is likely to increase; for we know far less of the flora of Japan and China than of California and Oregon. Drs. Hooker and 'Thomson’s large Himalayan collections, now in the course of distribution and publication, will probably add several more to the list. Twenty-nine of these genera, or 8 per cent, are common to all three of these regions. Our 194 genera which are neither European, N. W. American, nor H, Asiatic in temperate regions, require further discussion to show which are characteristic of Eastern North America. We will here barely notice that: Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 225 ° 8 Belong also to Western temperate Asia, viz., Menispermum, Planera, and Zizania; two of these being peculiar to that district and to ours. ‘ 73 Extend southward beyond the limits of the United States and into tropical regions, or recur in the southern hemis- here. 120 re characteristic Eastern United States genera. As already stated, only three genera are actually restricted to the geographical area comprised in our ‘ Botany of the Northern United States’. If, however, we allow our area to embrace Can- ada, which naturally belongs to it, and also include those plants which extend southward much beyond lat. 86° 30’ only in the Alleghanies or cool upper country of the Southern States, we may enumerate 37 genera peculiar to this flora; viz.— Zanthorhiza. Echinocystis. Pyxidanthera. Hydrastis. Sullivantia. Direa. Caulophyllum. Zizia. Hamiltonia. Diphylleia. Erigenia. Comptonia. Jetfersonia. Brachycheeta. Arethusa, _ Adlumia. Chiogenes. Tipularia. Solea. Oxydendrum. Aplectrum. Huds ¢ ia. Rhodora. Medeola. Napza. Leiophyllum. Helonias. Cladrastis. Sch weinitzia. Chameelirium. Gymnocladus. Galax. Amphicarpum. Gillenia. Nemopanthes. Dalibarda. Hemianthus. To show, however, how slight an influence, after all, these 37 characteristic genera exert upon our flora, we have only to re- mark that they comprise altogether only 39 of our species :—that is, they have only one species apiece, except Hudsonia and Gille- mia, which have two each. The characteristics of our flora of the Northern States merge in those of the flora of Eastern North America, and these again into those of the North American flora generally; and no idea can be formed of the real features of a flora like ours from such a dissection, and piecemeal presentation, or from an exhibition of what is strictly peculiar to each part, rather than what is predominant,—at least as respects generic forms. , Returning now to the species,—the real exponents of vegeta- tion;—these have already been considered as regards their nu- merical proportions in the several classes and orders of the flora of the Northern States: it remains to note some facts respecting their geographical distribution. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.——SEPT., 1856, 29 ‘ 226 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. ag appears from the tabular view commencing on p. 208, there are common to Europe, 180 Dicotyledonous species out of 1490, or 12 per cent. 141 Monocotyledonous species out of 601, or 234 “ 321 Phenogamous Species out of 2091 or 153 “ 35 Acrogenous Cryptogamia out of 75 or 466 “ 320 Musci and Hepaticee out of 502 or 63-7 “ 855 Oryptogamous species out of 577 or 615 « in accordance with the general fact that the lower the class the wider the geographical area occupied by the species. In the following table I have attempted to exhibit the particu- lar range of our indigenous phzenogamous species of each natu- ral order in longitude, through the northern temperate zone. The table has been hastily prepared, and must be often erroneous in details; but the general results are probably very near the truth. The Indigenous Phenogamous Species of the Northern United States, viewed as to their geographical distribution around the northern tem- perate zone. Nome Of ee aa vo res ~ ° - . — a Cy < Sea lEfsal 2a © | 22 ive rs Bs gi eg ieb 5) as < 5 & fa ke id — (-) - @ = GES (has Sl to ° 25 Eg g = 3 Stn |tc&s| oa 2 a a a, S feage>| fo) Bou |(FSR2| FO. i =e we yi = a6 sey i™ece t= bo oid ws So J aa = = coe] cA S a7. eg rs) =e he as |Z Se cl _ ae aa ne =o 5 CS Poe Wad z 24 Eq RN Bo = Sen isaun eed | s qo | en 1 oe A SES |sesaleos| & as | ce | #2 | eee Boo go, et LS |e eee Class I. DIcOTYLEDONEA, seu ExoGENné. Ranunculacex, A9 | 26 20 13 1 5 10 2 Magnoliaceex, 6 6 Anonacer, 1 1 Menispermacez, 3 3 Berberidacez, 5 5 Nelumbiacez, 1 1 Cabombacee, 1 1 1 1 Nymphecee, 3 1 2 1 1 Sarraceniaces, 2 2 Papaveracee, 2 2 Fumariacee, 6 5 1 Crucifere, 46 31 13 11 2 11 Capparidaceee, 1 1 Violacez, 18 | 15 3 1 1 Cistacese, 7 A Droseracee, 4 2 1 1 2 1 Parnassiacee, 3 2 1 1 1 Hypericaceee, 18 | 18 Statistics of the Flora of the Morthern States. 227 Crass 1.—continued. Se jens 1 ea 5 aa 13 oe c SeBlewgslge | 2 | €8 | €8 | 2 | aa s Eee eee EZ. 2 [22 | 38) 2 | wee (227c|ave| 2 | 2 | 2214. | 83 a ZsaP |Svvx E25 io Bg a e¢ a Gas a Seslesse/se2) Ss | s8 | Be | 38 | ese Elatinaces, ! 1 1 Caryophyllacez, SO 14 | Lo [tee 18 1 Portulacaces, 4 4 Malvacee, 9 9 Tiliacez, 2 2 Camelliaces, 2 2 Linaces, 2 Z | Oxalidaceze, 3 1 2 2 2 Geraniacee, 8 J i 1 u Balsaminacee, g 2 Limnanthacee, 1 1 Rutacee, 3 3 Anacardiacer, 6 5 1 Vitacez, vf 7 Rhamnacer, 6 6 Celastracez, 3 9 1 Sapindacez, 10:) 10 Polygalacee, 133 | 3 Leguminose, 91} 84 7 4 4 Rosacee, Tl 43 1 28 aly 3 2 16 I Calycanthacer, 3 3 Melastomacee, 3 3 Lythracee, a 5 1 t 1 1 Onagracez, 36) 26): 10) (10 10 Loasacez, 1 1 Cactacee, ] I Grossulacee, 7 5 2 il 1 Passifloracez, y) 2 Cucurbitacesx, 3 3 Crassulace, 5 5 Saxifragacee, 22 4 4 2 2 5 3 Hamamelacee, 3 3 Umbellifere, S|, 28 9 4 3 2 2 Araliacez, 6 5 | 1 I 1 Cornacee, 11 10 1 Caprifuliaceze, ies PB) 7 3 L 3 Rubiacex, 22 18 4 3 1 4 1 Valerianacez, a 6 1 Composite, 273 | 2383 | 29 | 11 2 9 Lobeliacee, 12} 11 1 I Campanulaces, 5 3 2 1 iT ; Ericacee, 621.35.) 24 18 2 1 19 2 228 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Crass I—continued. s Bom |oeteleo 1.84 Sau ee) 2) ee 6 Bae 155 85| Fo, co: 1 oe g 3 ese fese|Pet| 2 | Be | ee | 2B | Be Hd ae izes 2 ans = = = oe =O 3 @eP fetc2| SEE! & Se ee (oe Lee. : Sic eers| So 54-2 4) Set ee | Sa | seg e G5 gseulees| & | 3 | ee | RY | es< Galacines, 1 1 : Agquifoliacez, 10-1 10 Styracacee, 5 5 Ebenacee, 1 1 Sapotacee, 2 2 Plantaginacee, 6 4 2 1 : Plumbaginaceze, 1 ] j 1 Primulacee, 16 8 8 6 6 Lentibulacee, 12 8 2 4 4. Bignoniacee, 2 2 Orobanchaceex, 5 2 3 Scrophulariacez, 54). 38 | 26,7. 10 1 Acanthacee, 3 3 Verbenacee, Al 5 1 1 1 1 Labiate, 49 42 | 4 Borraginacee, 16°12 + 3 Hydrophyllacez, | 9 2 Polemoniacee, i2 11 1 1 Convolvulacez, 1S 3 14 1 1 Solanacee, 4 4 Gentianaceex, 24) 222 2 2 Apocynacee, 4 3 1 Asclepiadacee, 2 ae 2 Oleaces, 9 9 Aristolochiaceee, 6 6 Nyctaginacee, 1 1 Phytolaccacce, 1 1 Chenopodiacee, 10 4 5 5 1 Amarantacee, 5 5 Polygonacee, 22} 14 7 6 1 Lauraceee, a 5 Thymeleacer, i 1 Eteeagnaceee, 1 1 Santalacese, 3 2 1 Loranthaceze, 1 1 Saururacee, 1 1 Ceratophyllacez, 1 i 1 1 Callitrichaceee, 3 3 3 3 Podostemaceer, 1 1 Euphorbiacee, 28 | 25 3 Eimpetraceee, 2 1 1 1 1 Urticacer, 16 }, 18 4 i. 1 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 229 Crass I—continued. Sa. lgeeeleaoy) @ haf le |e (ee Z ese jeige| 232] 2 | 38 | 22 | FS | 28s i Soe lscee| SoS) whee ee | AP VEE S Platanacee, 1 1 Juglandacee, 9 9 Cupuliferee, 25 23 ] 1 t 1 Myricacee, 3 2 1 1 1 Betulacee, 10 6 2 4 y 4 Salicaceee, — 24; 18 6 4 1 3 Conifere, D0 ko (i 2 2 Class IT. MonocoryLepon &, seu ENDOGEN A. Araces, 7 5 2 2 2 Typhacez, 7 1 3 5 6 1 Lemnacee, 5 1 4 4 Naiadacee, 16 4 4 9 5 12 3 Alismacee, 12 5 7 4 4 Hydrocharidacee, 3 1 1 1 2 1 Burmanniacee, 1 1 Orchidacee, bd) a6 13 9 2 1 10 2 Amaryllidacee, 4 4 Hemodoracee, 4 4 Bromeliacee, 1 1 Inidacee, 6 5 1 Dioscoreaceee, 1 1 ) Smilacese, asa om pilagk 1 r Liliacee, 24 | 14 7 5 t i! 5 1 Melanthacee, a1.) 15 6 1 1 Juncacer, Set B ivehe | de fd 14 Pontederiacee, c 4 Commelynacer, 6 6 Xyridacez, 4 4 Eriocaulonace e, 5 4 | 1 1 Cyperacee, Ds 15a hl Sh we ae 3 2{ 48 | 13 Graminer, LGQe i be 44 ao 1 4 32 2 Total Monoco- ee tyledoneze, 601 | 408 | 143 | 124 19 8 | 141 25 Dicotyledonew, {1490 |1168 | 273 | 184 | 26 | 17; 180 | 18 2091 |1576 | 416 | 308 45 25 | 321 38 Pheenogamia, 230 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. The data are not at hand for extending this table through the higher Cryptogamia, except for the highest class, and that im- perfectly. The four orders of Vascular or Acrogenous Cryptoga- mia give the following results; the columns being homologous with those of the last table. Equisetaceee, 10, | 2 | Bares 8 Filices, 49 | 26 | 13 | 238 8 3 | 20 \bycopodiacern, | 12 | 4) Gi 7) | El Ba aa 1 | Hydropterides, 4 | 2 | | 1 1 | 1 | 75 | 34 | 28 | 39 ol "S5_ —- These tables necessarily include the species of our small alpine region, which, being chiefly Arctic, might properly be regarded rather as intruded members of the Arctic flora. Being mostly diffused all round the world, they increase somewhat unduly the numbers of our species common to Europe and to Asia; but they are not sufficiently numerous with us to require to be for- mally eliminated. The following are all the Phzenogamous spe- cies which, within our limits, are found only in our small alpine region, namely, on the summits of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, of Mount Katahdin, Maine, and the highest peaks of the Green Mountains, Vermont, and the Adirondack Mountains in Northern New York :— Cardamine bellidifolia. Viola palustris. Silene acaulis. Sibbaldia procumbens. Dryas integrifolia, (fide Pursh). Potentilla frigida. Epilobium alpinum, var. majus. Oxyria reniformis. Betula nana. Salix phylicifolia, Salix Uva-Ursi. Salix repens. Salix herbacea. Luzula arcuata. Saxifraga rivularis. Gnaphalium supinum. Nabalus Boottii. Nabalus nanus. Luzula spicata. Juncus trifidus. Carex capitata. Carex atrata. Vaccinium czespitosum. Arctostaphylos alpina. Phyllodoce taxifolia. Rhododendron Lapponicum. Veronica alpina. Diapensia Lapponica. Of these 33 species, two (Nabalus Boott and Calamagrostis Pickeringit) are peculiar to our own alpine region, so far as is now known, but they are most likely to occur further north; and two (Nabalus nanus and Vaccinwum cespitosum) are peculiarly North American. All the rest are European, and with two or three exceptions also Asiatic. No one of our vascular Crypto- gamous species is wholly alpine, Lycopodiwm Selago comes the nearest to being so. Phleum alpinum. Calamagrostis Pickeringii. Poa laxa. Aira atropurpurea. Hierochloa alpina. ~ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 231 The following are with us subalpine species; they occur in our alpine region (to which most of them properly belong), but also out of it, at least in one or two places. Alsine Groenlandica. Geum radiatum. Arnica mollis. Vaccinium uliginosum. Euphrasia officinalis. Polygonum viviparum. Empetrum nigrum. Platanthera obtusata. Scirpus ceespitosus. Carex scirpoidea. Carex capillaris. Trisetum subspicatum. All of these except Geum radiatum, Arnica mollis, and Carex scwrpordea, are also Huropean. The last grows in Greenland. The following European species have not been detected in any properly alpine habitat with us (where they might be expected to occur), but elsewhere, three of them (Sazifraga arzoides and Carex gynocrates) in stations not even subalpine: Saxifraga oppositifolia. Saxifraga aizoides. Saxifraga Aizoon. Artemisia borealis. Juncus Stygius. Carex gynocrates. Two Ferns might be added to the subalpine list, viz :— Wood- sia glabella and Aspidium fragrans. The Phznogamous species whose range, so far as is now known, falls wholly within the limits of the ‘Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States’ are the following: DIcoTYLEDONOUS. Dentaria maxima. Vesicaria Shortii. Napea dioica. Sida Napea. Psoralea stipulata. Astragalus Robbinsii ? Ludwigia polycarpa. Tillzea simplex. Sullivantia Ohionis. Galium concinnum. Fedia Fagopyrum. “ —umbilicata. “ patellaria. EKupatorium pubescens. e resinosum. Solidago Ohioénsis. “ Houghtonii. “neglecta. “ Mublenbergii. “¢ Tinoides, es \BDOFH. “ _rupestris. MonocoTyLEDONOUS. Lemna perpusilla. Potamogeton Robbinsii. - Tuckermani. Trillium nivale. Veratrum Woodii. Helonias bullata. Narthecium Americanum. Juncus Greenil. Cyperus Grayii. Eleocharis rostellata. it compressa. - Robbinsii. Psilocarya scirpoides. Rhynchospora, capillacea, Carex exilis. “ Sartwellii. sychnocephala. “ Crawei ? “formosa. “ Careyana. “ retrocurva. “ Sullivantii. ed 232 On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. DicoTyYLEDONOUS. Rudbeckia speciosa. Coreopsis bidentoides. Cirsium pumilum. Nabalus Boottii. Gaylussacia brachycera. Utricularia clandestina. ie resupinata. Hemianthus micranthemoides. Pycnanthemum clinopodioides. MonocoTyYLEDONOUS. Carex mirata. “ Grayii. Sporobolus compressus. “4 serotinus. Calamagrostis confinis. . Pickeringii. ve brevipilis. Dupontia Cooleyi. Glyceria acutiflora. . Torreyi. Poa alsodes. Asclepias Sullivantii. “ debilis. i: Meadii. Amphicarpum Purshii. Blitum maritimum. Polygonum Careyi. Ulmus racemosa. 37 species. 34 species = 71. (Zo be continued.) ART. XVII.—Letter on the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain ; by Sir RopEerick I. Murcwison.* TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD STANLEY OF ALDERLY, &c. &c. Havine heard that Her Majesty’s Government proposes to re- move the Department of Science and Art, at present under the control of the Board of Trade, to the office of the Minister of the Crown who may be charged with the education of the people, I beg to be permitted to place on record a few observations on the effect which such a change may produce upon the establish- ment in Jermyn-Street, as consisting of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and its affiliated School of Mines and illustrative Museum. Impressed with the great value of the scheme of bringing science and art to bear upon the productive industry of the country, and anxiously desirous, as well as every professor in this establishment, to aid zealously in so good a cause, I have to request that the following statement may be considered as an exposition of the views entertained by my associates and myself. I will first recall to your Lordship’s notice, briefly, the origin of this establishment and the objects which it was destined to accomplish by the additions which were made to it; and having shown that all other states, seeking to develop their mineral * From a “Copy of Correspondence between the Director-General of the Geolog- ical Survey and the President of the Board of Trade and the Council of Education, relative to annexing a Museum of Practical Geology to the Department of Arts and Sciences.” : : On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 238 wealth, have analogous institutions, attention will be drawn to the following points. First. What real benefits will be derived from our estab- lishment, if it be duly encouraged as a higher School of Mines? Second. What may result, if it be rendered subordinate to the system of the general education of the country ? It is wholly unnecessary to comment upon the desirableness of a complete geological survey of the British Isles, as first es- tablished at the suggestion of my lamented predecessor, Sir Henry Dela Beche, which has now been successfully in action for nearly twenty years, and which, whilst it affords the most import- ant information respecting the composition of the sub-soil, has been considered by all persons eminent in geological and mining science, to have been conducted with surpassing skill. This survey, which is the base of the whole establishment, has its analogue in most civilized lands, and the country void of it must remain ignorant of that knowledge of the crust of the earth which is indispensable in every effort to promote the material interest of man. Acting on this principle, each government of the Great American Republic has its state geologist, just as the continental governments of Kurope have colleges and schools specially adapted to the instruction of miners, the chief and active officers of which construct the geological maps of their respective regions. | The object, therefore, of my predecessor was to induce the British government and Parliament to emulate other countries, by adding to the survey an illustrative Museum and a School of Mines; so that England, which, through the spirit and enterprise of individuals, had already taken a prominent lead in geological science, and had seen her own insular names rendered classical throughout the scientific world, might also possess a central school for sound instruction, not only in geology, mining, and mineralogy, but also in the essentially connected sciences of nat- ural history, chemistry, metallurgy, mechanics and physics. The effects which have resulted from our teaching have been beneficially felt both at home and through the most distant re- gions, inasmuch as our school has already afforded geological and mining surveyors to many of our colonies in the East Indies, Australia, and the Cape; whilst at this moment the legislature and governments of the West Indies are petitioning for mineral surveyors of their respective islands, and Her Majesty’s govern- ment joining, as 1 am happy to say, in this enlightened and lib- eral movement, have applied to me to recommend suitable per- sons for such employments. In relation to Britain, [ may be permitted here to suggest, that the encouragement which is now offered to our Schoo! of Mines might at once receive considerable stimulus by a declaration on SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 30 234 On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. the part of Her Majesty’s government, that no one of the twelve inspectors of coal mines, each receiving a salary of 400/. per annum, should be appointed, who had not undergone the prelim- inary studies which our institution affords. If such and other encouragements were held out abroad as well as at home, and if every person appointed by the crown to all such offices should first either obtain good certificates after studying in our school, or at all events pass a satisfactory examination at it, the number of our pupils would doubtless augment rapidly. Just as schol- arships, fellowships, livings and all the higher offices of state and law, are the real attractions which have hitherto filled the ancient universities, so would the public then see that a benefi- cial career was open to youths through the study of the sciences which we teach. A really encouraging move, one which has produced the best effects upon our students, has indeed been made in this direction through the enlightened views of His Royal Highness Prince Albert, who, acting for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, as Duke of Cornwall, presented to our establishment two schol- arships of the annual value of 80/. each. Even in our present condition, nearly 100 officers of Her Majesty’s or the Honorable East India Company’s services have spontaneously taken advantage of our scientific instruction, which they know will give them advantages in foreign lands; instruction too, which they obtain with us, at half the usual charges, and which cannot be had elsewhere in this country. Nor let it be supposed that, in any case where a young man is really desirous to gain knowledge, he is not adequately taught; inasmuch as every one of our professors acts both as teacher and examiner, and takes upon himself the tutorial responsibility of ascertaining that he has truly imbued his pupil with» sound knowledge. A striking proof of the interest attached to the useful instruc- tion afforded by our institution is also given by the presence of 61.0 working men who attend the courses of evening lectures de- livered gratuitously by our professors; the tickets being so sought after, that they are applied for and distributed within five hours from the commencement of their issue. That the publication of the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Sur- vey” have an important influence, is evident from the fact that, whenever they refer to districts charged with mineral wealth, their publication is speedily exhausted and new editions called for. In alluding to the utility of these publications I beg spe- cially to call attention to a volume about to be issued by our Metallurgical Professor, Dr. Percy, viz., the ‘‘ Analyses of British Tron @yes.” As these results have been obtained in our labora- tory arid ‘involved in their investigation the elaborate analyses of On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 235 all the British iron ores of commercial value, in number amount- ing to more than 100 varieties, and occupying the time of two chemists incessantly during a period of nearly three years, they prove the extent to which we have been preparing to meet the rivalry of foreign countries, by that close scientific research, the spreading results of which among our industrial population can alone enable us to maintain our present position as the chief manufacturing country in the world.* Putting aside the consideration of these branches of our studies, the successful cultivation of which is not so obvious to the mass of mankind, but without which no scientific education can be complete, I now pass from the working of our establishment in its present relations to the government, to notice certain imped- iments to our success as a national scientific establishment, which may arise, if our body should, by a change of relations, be gov- erned by the same influences as those which are likely to prevail in the general management of the education of the people. Liberal as the minister may be under whose control the gen- eral education of the nation may be placed, there is little doubt that in this country the greater number of its instructors will be drawn from among:such of the graduates of the ancient univer- sities, as, both by their training and position must be, to a great extent, disqualified from assigning their due importance to the practical branches of science. Such persons may be eminent in scholarship and abstract science, and yet ignorant of the fact that the continued prosperity of their country absolutely depends upon the diffusion of scientific knowledge among its masses. They may, with the most sincere and earnest intention, not only fail to advance, but even exercise a retarding influence on such diffusion, and may object to a course of study which, as now pursued, is irrespective of religious teaching. Experience has shown in how sickly a manner practical science is allowed to raise 1ts head under the direction of those persons whose pur- suits are alien to it; whilst in every land, where it has had due support, the greatest benefits have resulted. Placed as the geological survey and its affiliated branches now are, in subordination to the Board of Trade, they are continually aiding in the development of an amount of mineral wealth far exceeding that of any other country, and in this wholesome and important action, the movements of our body are not only un- fettered, but are likely to receive all that encouragement which seems alone to be wanted to enable this establishment to be emi- nently useful in instructing that class of persons who will mate- rially augment the productive industry and trade of Great Britain. * See Mr. J. Kenyon Blackwell’s Paper on the Present position of the Iron Indus- ny of Great Britain, with reference to that of other Countries, read at the Society of Arts, Wednesday 9, January 1856, p. 121 of the Journal. 236 J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradvum. I have thus taken the liberty of offering to your Lordship, as the Member of Her Majesty’s Government under whom I serve, my view upon a subject of which I have long thought; and have only now to request that, in giving it your best attention, you will submit this letter to Her Majesty’s Government, and particularly to the consideration of the Minister who may be des- tined to be charged with the education of the country. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street, Jan. 25, 1856. Art. XVIIL.— Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with Notices of the Species found in Middle Tennessee ; by Prof. J. M. SAFForp, A. M., Geologist of the State of Tennessee. THE genus Zetradium, has been characterized by Prof. Dana in his great work on Zoophytes.* His description and remarks are as follows: ; ‘ Coralla massive, consisting of 4-sided tubes, and cells with very thin septa or parietes; cells stellate with 4 narrow lamine.” ‘This genus-is near Receptaculites, but differs in having very thin parietes and four distinct rays within the cells, one to each side. The specimen answering to the description, is a fossil of uncertain locality in the collections of Yale College, New Haven. The cells are about half a line in breadth. The name, from the Greek, tergus, four, alludes to the quadrate structure.” So far as we know, no further notice has been taken of this genus. ‘T’o us it is of great interest from the fact that individu- als, belonging apparently to several species, are not very abund- ant in the limestones of the Silurian, or as we shall hereafter term it, the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee. In addition to the characters given above, we add the follow- ing: The tubes, in the different species, vary from 4 of a line to nearly a line in breadth; they are very long, and are most frequently united throughout laterally, forming massive coralla resembling more or less those of Favosites and Cheetetes ; some- times however, they are united in single intersecting series, as in Flulysites catenulutus, Linn.; not unfrequently too the tubes are isolated, or only united at irregular intervals, thus form- ing loose fasciculated coralla resembling certain forms of Syrin- gopora. The isolated tubes are nearly quadrangular, the edges being more or lessrounded. A slight linear depression down the mid- * United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. Vol. 8th, page 701. — = ~ J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradium. 237 die of each side externally, opposite the lamella. 1: Figure 1 will serve to give an idea of the trans- 99 verse, or horizontal section of one of these tubes. In the massive specimens the horizontal sections debe nr eae of ‘the'tubes are square, or nearly so. In all of jransverse section, the species the walls are more or less rugose. linear. : The increase appears to be by the division of the tubes, the latter splitting sometimes into two cell-tubes, not unfrequently perhaps into four; opposite laminz unite and form the new walls of the young cells, each of which is in the mean time sup- plied with its four rays. Among the numerous specimens of this genus, which we have seen, we have met with but one which shows clearly the pres- ence of transverse septa. This is a fragmentary specimen of the first species described below. In it the septa are distant about twice the breadth of a tube; but few however are seen, and these are confined to one end of the mass. This group we regard as being allied in some respects to the Favositide, while on the other hand, the cruciform arrangement of the lamelle unite with the Zoantharia rugosa of MM. Milne Edwards and Haime; in fact it appears to afford an interesting type of the quadripartite character of the lamelle, first pointed out, by these distinguished authors, in many palzeozoic corals. We enumerate the following species, all of which as well as the genus itself, so far as we know, are confined to the Lower Silurian rocks. 1. Tetradium fibratum Safford, (Fig. 2.)—Cor- 2, alla massive, hemispherical, or flattened hemis- pherical, composed of diverging tubes. Cell- tubes four-sided with thin and slightly rugose walls; the four lamellee distinct, nearly reaching the centre of the tubes; breadth of full-grown tubes usually about, or but little more than, half a line, varying occasionally from $d to ths 1. section of a line. ‘Transverse septa usually absent. of a few tubes of T. A few have been seen in one specimen, which ®t) magnified. were about twice the breadth of a tube apart. This beautiful species, which may be taken as the type of the genus, occurs abundantly throughout the upper half of the Lower Silurian rocks of Middle Tennessee, associated with Favistella stellata Hall, Ambonychia radiata Hall, and other Hudson River species. Large masses a foot or two in diameter, are met witb. The calcareous specimens often resemble, in a weathered longi- tudinal section, a fossilized but previously somewhat macerated mass of woody fibre, and hence the name of the species. 2. T. columnare Hall; Syn. Chetetes columnaris Hall. Pal. of N. Y., vol. i, p. 68, Pl. xxi, Figs. 4,4a-—Mr. Hall’s species, 238 J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradium. we think referable to this genus. It differs from T. fibratum in the following particulars: the tubes are not as uniformly four- sided, nor are they arranged with equal regularity ; the walls are more strongly rugose; the lamelle appear to have been more delicate, and are generally not to be seen; traces of them how- ever can, in most instances, be found upon close examination. The four-sided character of the tubes is sufficiently well marked to justify this reference, in connection with the fact that traces of the lamelle can often be detected. This species is associated with the last, and occurs, in addition, lower in the series, with Columnaria alveolata Hall. It is a common fossil in our Central Basin. 8. T. apertum Safford—Tubes isolated or fasciculated, or else united in linear series which often intersect, forming irregular reticulations; breadth of tubes about half a line; lamelle as in T. fibratum. | This species includes certain open, loosely constructed corals which belong to this genus. Two varieties may be designated. These appear to run into each other in some specimens, though it may be found necessary hereafter to separate them. (a2) Masses composed of separate tubes occasionally united by their sides. ‘These forms often resemble Syringopora. (6) Masses composed of tubes arranged in linear series, the lat- ter intersecting and forming masses like those of Halysites caten- ulatus Linn. Should it be found necessary to separate these varieties, the first may be designated 7: laxum and the second T. apertum. We have observed no characters, with the exception of the open mode of growth which separate this species from T. fibra- tum. The first variety is abundant in the middle part of the Lower Silurian series of Middle Tennessee. The second is found in the upper half as well as near the base. We have observed the same species in Kentucky. 4. T. minus Safford—We include in this species massive speci- mens, (generally small,) the tubes of which are only from }th to $d of a line in breadth. The tubes in some specimens are quite regular, in others, though generally four-sided, are more or less irregular and have the aspect on the upper surface of Cheetetes. Lamellee as in 'T’.. fibratum. We have occasionally seen this species in the upper division of the Lower Silurian series in Middle Tennessee, as well as in Kentucky. E., Mitchcock, Jr., on a New Fossil Sheil. 239 Art, XIX.—A new Fossil Shell in the Connecticut River Sand- stone ; by KH. HirrcHcock, Jr. I HAVE lately found in the coarse sandstone of Mount Tom, (Easthampton, Mass.,) a shell of a mollusk, the first I believe that has been discovered in the sandstone of the Connecticut Valley. It is preserved and not petrified, and a considerable part of it has disappeared. Enough remains however to enable us to refer it to a family if not to a genus of shells. It is ‘repre- sented in the annexed diagram of the natural size as it lies in a SS == app isth os SSS the rock. The upper part is gone, leaving an oval opening about an inch and three quarters in one diameter and an inch and one quarter in the other. It extends downwards, tapering somewhat rapidly nearly an inch and a half, and is left without a bottom, the lower opening being about an inch wide. The walls are very thick, in some places nearly half an inch, and made up of several concentric layers. From the resemblance of this shell to a model of the lower valve of the Sphzerulites calceoloides in the Cabinet of Amherst College, it seems probable that it may be referred to that family of Brachiopods denominated Rudiste by Lamarck. Its lower parts as well as the lower valve are missing, but what remains approaches nearer to the genus Spherulites than to any other of the Rudistee of which I have seen specimens or figures. The geological position of this fossil will be readily under- stood by referring to the description of Clathropteris rectiusculus 240 T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. -as described in vol. xx, p. 22 of this Journal. The shell is found in the same coarse grit as the Clathropteris, immediately — beneath the trap (see section in the paper just referred to). By referring to Bronn’s Lethza Geognostica, I find that the Rudistz with the exception of the genera—Orbicula and Cra- nia, are confined almost wholly to the Chalk Formation, and the shell from Mount Tom certainly comes nearer to the genus Spherulites, Radiolites and Hippurites, than to Crania. This specimen is too imperfect to allow of a specific or generic description, but if there be no mistake in associating it with the above genera, 1t seems to lend additional strength to the inference derived from the discovery of the Clathropteris, that the upper part of the Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley is as high at least as the Liassic or Jurassic series. It might seem even to carry us higher in the series, but it would be premature to draw such an inference from a single imperfect specimen, even though its true analogies be ascertained. ‘I'he specimen now belongs to Amherst College Cabinet. ART. XX.—On the Hruption at Hawai; by Rev. Tirus Coan.* ERE this you may have seen my letter of Nov. 16th to Mr. Lyman, giving an account of a visit to the end of the lava stream in the forests of Hilo. Since that date [have made four trips to the fire, making six in all. The great fire fountain is still in: eruption, and the terminus of the stream is only about five miles from the shore. A track for horses has been cut to the fire, so that we can now ride up with ease and return in half a day. The lava moves slowly along on the surface of the ground, and at points where the quantity of lava is small, we dip it up with an iron spoon held in the hand. During the last three weeks the stream has made no progress towards Hilo, and we begin to hope that the supply at the summit fountain has diminished. There is, however, still much smoke at the terminal crater; and while the lower end of the stream is hardened for two miles above its terminus, thus checking the flow in the forest, the fusion is by hydrostatic pressure, gushing up vertically above this line, and creeping, like fiery serpents, in a thousand gory looking rills, over the smouldering masses of lava, long since deposited. These repeated and numerous up-gushings of the fusion through cracks, holes and fissures in the superincumbent masses of recently solidified lava, are caused by the sudden hardening of the end of the stream, thus obstructing the passage and causing the incan- descent material, flowing under cover from regions above, to force * From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, March 7, 1856. T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawait. 241 Jateral outlets, or burst again to the surface by raising the super- incumbent crust into ten thousand tumuli, cracking it in every direction and tilting it at every angle. In this way, the hardened stream becomes an irregularly laminated mass of unequal thick- . ness, with a surface rolling in ridges, raised in blisters, cones, hil- locks and domes, depressed into valleys, indented with pits, rent with yawning fissures, frowning with precipices, and bristling with crags. The process is somewhat like that of a superabundant quantity of water forcing its way into too small or obstructed channels under vast fields of ice; allowing, of course, for the great difference in consistency. You will understand, that the molten flood is all poured out of the fissures on the summit and for a few miles down the slope of the mountain. At first, this disgorgement flowed down and spread wide on the surface of the mountain as blood flows down a punctured limb. This phenom- enon continued until the stream had swept down some thirty miles, which it did in about two days. It now came upon a plane where the angle of slope was small, say 1°. Here its progress became slow, it spread more widely, and refrigeration was more rapid. The surface, of course, hardened first. But this refrigera- ting process went deeper and deeper like the congelation of water, and extended higher and higher up the mountain, until at length all the lava was covered, except at occasional vents—as heretofore described—for the escape of steam and gases. Meanwhile the molten river careered unseen under the enormous mural ceil- ing which had been formed of its own substance, in a continu- ous longitudinal stream—showing itself in fiery lines, points, | rills and capes, as it gushed out from under the black crust at the terminus of the stream. Here we could deliberately note its movements, as it pushed sullenly along over the rocks, through the jungle and into the mud, the pools, and water courses. The process of breaking up vertically and spreading out afresh upon the hardened crust, was occasioned by obstructions at the end of the stream, damming up the liquid, and thus obliging the accu- mulating lavas to force new passages and outlets for disgorge- ment. In this way the stream was widened by lateral out- gushings, divided into several channels, swayed to the right and left, and raised to great heights by pushing up from below, and heaping mass after mass upon what had leen its upper stra- tum. Often when the stream had been flowing briskly and bril- hantly at the end, it would suddenly harden and cool, and for several days remain inactive. At length, however, immense areas of the solidified lava, four, five or six miles above the end of the stream, are seen in motion—cones are uncapped—domes crack—hills and ridges of scoria move and clink—immense slabs of lava are raised vertically or tilted in every direction, while a SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 31 242 T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. low, sullen crash, is heard from below, as if infernal spirits had risen to the surface of their fiery abyss and were there strug- gling to burst the adamantine ceiling of their prison and breathe the air of mortals. While you gaze in mute amazement, and feel the solid masses of rock—often 30, 50 or 70 feet thick— moving under your feet, the strugzling lava oozes out, through ten thousand orifices and fissures, over a field of some four or five square miles. More than once have I been on such a field, and heard, and seen and felt more than is here or can be de- scribed. And yet the action of the lava is so slow—in the con- ditions described—that there is no fear, and little danger to one well acquainted with such phenomena. While the timid novi- tiate would flee for miles before such a scene, without looking back, and without consciousness of breathing, the experienced explorer will walk deliberately among the fiery pools, and rills, pry off the caps of bursting tumuli, and dip up spoils from the incandescent rocks. When the lava becomes obstructed so that it ceases, for a time, to flow from the end of the stream, then the process which has been described takes place at some point above, and the molten mass coming up at many points, and accumulating on the sur- face, moves down in a superincumbent stream or streams, cov- ering up the hardened masses below, deepening the lava, and at length reaching the terminus of the former flow, pushes on into the standing forests, and continues its progress towards Hilo perhaps a mile or so, when this hardens and stops, and at length the process is repeated. Here you see the reason why Hilo has not long since been buried. Several large tributaries of the Wailuku—the stream which empties into our bay—are blotted out, and the water of the Wai- luku is greatly reduced and rendered for the present unfit for use. Scenes of terrible splendor have been witnessed in some of our river channels, as the molten flood moved resistlessly down, displacing the water, leaping the precipices, and lighting up the banks with immense bonfires of flaming jungle. I have witnessed two scenes of the kind of inexpressible brilliancy. One on the night of the 29th of January, and the other on the 12th of Feb- ruary. During the former night, the molten stream poured con- tinuously over a precipice of 50 feet, into a deep, dry basin, half filled with flood-wood. The angle down which this fire-cataract flowed, was about 75°: the lava was divided into two, three, and sometimes four channels, from one to four yards wide, and two or three feet deep. The flow was continuous down the face of this precipice from 2 Pp. M. on the 19th until 10 a. M. on the 30th, when we left. During the night the immense basin under the fall was filled, the precipice converted into an inclined plane T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. 243 of about 4°, and the burning stream was urging its way along the rocky channel below. But the scene on the night of the 12th of February, was, in some respects, more gorgeous still, as it combined the element of water with that of fire. A stream of lava from 20 to 40 yards wide had followed the rocky and precipitous bed of a river, un- til it was two miles in advance of the main lava flow, which was nearly two miles broad. Beating our way through the thicket, we came upon the terminus of this narrow stream of lava, near sunset. It was intensely active, and about to pour over a pre- cipice of 39 feet (by measurement,) into a basin of deep water, large enough to float a ship. Before dark, the lava began to fall into the water, first in great broken masses, like clots of blood ; but in a short time in continuous, incandescent streams, which increased from hour to hour in volume, in brilliancy and in rate of motion. The water boiled and raged with fearful vehemence, raising its domes and cones of ebullition ten feet high, and re- flecting the red masses of fusion like a sea of fire mingled with blood. The evaporation was rapid and sublime. From the whole sur- face of the basin, a vast irregular column of vapor rose and rolled upward in fleecy wreaths, and hung in a gilded and glo- rious canopy over the dark forest and over the fiery abyss. All night long the scene was ever changing and yet unchanged. The convolutions and gyrations were constant and inimitable. Sometimes the fleecy pillar would roll up vertically, until it seemed to form an entablature for the great dome of heaven. — Again, it would career off upon the winds, like a glorious galaxy, or break up in delicate tumuli to adorn the midnight sky. We encamped on the bank of the river, about fifty feet below the fiery cataract, and exactly opposite the basin of water into which the lava was flowing, 20 feet only from its rim. The face of this precipice was an angle of about 80°, and the lava flowed down it briskly and continuously, in streams from one to four feet deep, during the night. Before morning this whole body of water, some 20 feet deep, was converted into steam, and the precipice became a gently inclined plane. Ina few hours more the action ceased at this point and it has not been again renewed. I have seen continuous lava streams flow rapidly down the sides of the mountain from 10 to probably 50 feet deep. Lava flows at any depth, or any angle, and at any rate of progress from 20 feet an hour to 40 miles. March 17.—The lava has made no progress towards us since the date of this letter. 244 i. Nickles cn Amorphous Phosphorus. ArT. XXI.—On the purification of Amorphous Phosphorus; by M. Ernest NICKLES Ir is known that the phosphorus not spontaneously inflamma- ble or amorphous phosphorus (called also red or allotropic phos- phorus), is obtained by heating common yhosphorus for some time at a temperature between 230° and 250° C., in an atmosphere of nitrogen, hydrogen, or other gas free from oxygen. But how- ever long the treatment be continued, a portion of the phospho- rus always escapes the change and must be removed, if we would not compromise the essential qualities of the amorphous phosphorus, its innocuity and its unalterability in the air. The mode of purifying it proposed by Schrétter, its discoverer, is very inconvenient. It is based on the use of sulphuret of carbon which dissolves ordinary phosphorus without acting on the other. The process theoretically seems to be a simple one; but it is in practice attended with much trouble and danger; for the wash- ings are not only interminable and require a large quantity of the sulphuret of carbon, but besides this, the chances of inflam- ing it increase rapidly with the proportions of phosphorus under treatment. M. Schrotter has from the first sought to re- move the danger by recommending that the filter be kept full of the sulphuret so that the ordinary phosphorus which deposits on the borders of the filter, in a fine state of division, shall not take fire. But this precaution does not always suffice to prevent accidents. Impressed with these difficulties while experimenting with the red phosphorus, I have sought, by a study of the distinctive qualities of the two kinds of phosphorus to arrive at a safer and more expeditious mode of preparation; and as the attempts hith- erto made have appealed to methods purely chemical, I have looked more particularly to the physical properties of the two bodies. In this way, I have arrived at a process, which is both simple and rapid, and may be trusted even to inexperienced ~ hands—the last a thing of importance since red phosphorus has become an article of commerce. This process depends on the different specific gravities of the two kinds of phosphorus. It consists in putting the mixture into a liquid of intermediate density: thus, the specific gravity of red phosphorus is 2:106, of ordinary phosphorus 1:77; taking now a saline solution of specific gravity between these,—a solu- tion of chlorid of. calcium of 88 to 40 B., answers well the pur- pose,—the lighter ordinary phosphorus floats on the surface while the heavier red phosphorus remains below; and the former is readily taken up by a little sulphuret of carbon which dissolves it, so that the operation can be performed in a closed vessel. E.. Nickles on Amorphous Phosphorus. 245 The following are the details of the process. Ce H B103 724 371 929 2298 435 102 639 12°24 alkali and loss 1:75 Allanite occurs at Criffel in Scotland in small crystals in syenite and feldspathic granite; 2. P. Greg, Jr. Aum !p. 382].—Occurs in the caves of the Unaka Mts., Hastern Tennessee, es- pecially at Sevier, where masses of a cubic foot may be obtained; also in the black slate of Middle Tennessee; in caves along the valleys and gorges of the streams in DeKalb, Coffee, Franklin, and other counties.—Safford’s Rep, p. 118. Aunocen [p. 381].—Occurs at Vesuvius with alum, Scacchi, op. cit., p. 194. A white fibrous alunogen (?) occurs abundantly at Smoky Mountain, Jackson Co., N. Carolina. According to Mr. Faber, there are tons to be blasted at that locality. —(Prof. J. C. Booth, in a letter to the author.) ALVITE. JD. Forbes and 7. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. xiii).—From Helle and Narest6 in Norway. In dimetric crystals like zircon, Fracture splintery. H.= 55. G=8601—3-46. Color reddish brown, becoming grayish brown by alteration, Lustre greasy; opaque, on the edges translucent. B.B. in the platinum infusible, color somewhat paler. With borax a glass greenish yellow while hot, colorless when cold. With salt of phosphorus a yellow glass, green, and finally colorless on cooling. With tin no titanium reaction. In fine powder, not attacked by the acids. An analysis of the mineral on a very small portion and part of it somewhat altered afforded j Si AlBe Fe Zr Ec vy Ba@).).Ca, CaSn it meres 444) "9G "392 O27 22°01 ~ 15°13. 0:40 trace = 932=—97 24 Anvatusite [p. 257 and Suppl. 1, m].—Analysis (1) of the Andalusite of Katha- rinenberg near Wunsiedel, (2) of Robschiitz near Meissen, and (8) of Bréiunsdorf near Freiberg, by E. E. Schmid, (Pogg. xevii, 113): Si Al Fe Ca Meg 1; 35°74 56 98 571 0:15 0:20 = 98°78 G. =3:12 2. 36°84 55°82 3 22 1:09 rl40=> 9811 G.=311 3. 37°57 5Y 88 1:33 0°61 O17: =. 99°56 Gis 07 Oxygen ratio for the silica and sesquioxyds (1) 2: 306, (2) 2: 2:77, (3) 2: 286, corresponding nearly to the formula Al* Si?. [Allowing that the protoxyds are com- Pee with part of the silica, Nos. 2 and 3, will give much more nearly the ratio 2:3. AnetesitE [p. 370, and Suppl. 11]—Kokscharov figures a fine crystal of Anglesite from Monte Poni, Sardinia (Min. Russl. ii, 168). He mentions the occurrence of the planes 77, 12 ; and gives the angles J: J=103° 434’, O:1==115° 354’. Apatire [p. 396, and Suppl. 1, 11].—Occurs in New Jersey. at Mt. Pleasant Mine, near Mt. Teabo, in a low hill near the junction of the Rockaway River and the Burnt Meadow Creek, and about three-fourths of a mile from the canal. The masses are sometimes 6 inches in diameter. Apatite is also abundant with the magnetite of Byram mine.—N. J. Geol. Rep. 1856. Aragonite [p. 448, and Suppl. 1].—Pseudomorphs of the scaly massive carbon- _ate of lime (called Schawmkalk in German) after gypsum are described by G. Rose jn Pogy. Ann. xcvii, 161. Near WiederstaJt in Mansfeld, a fine-grained gypsum SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT,, 1856, 32 a fe othe ek ; 250 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. contains selenite in large plates which are partly altered to this earthy carbonate. Bischof has explained the change by supposing that waters. holding carbonate of soda in solution have filtrated through, producing with the gypsum sulphate of soda and carbonate of lime; but he and others have regarded the carbonate as common calcite. Prof. Rose adds to the examples of the change and shows that the carbon- ate is aragonite. It is generally snow-white and opaque, but minute scales are transparent; and sometimes minute crystalline tables may be distinguished. These tables have the form and angles of aragonite. Specific gravity 2.984 at 15° R. An important paper on the groupings in the twin crystals of Aragonite, Wither- ite and Alstonite, by M H. de Senarmont, is contained in the Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. [3], xli, 6U. The structure of the crystals was determined by means of po- larized light. ASTROPHYLLITE, Scheerer.—A kind of mica, from Brevig, Norway. Color black and also bronze to gold-yellow; lustre submetallic. Crystals 6-sided prisms and tables, elongated m the direction of the clinodiagonal. The angle of the pricm, as usual with the micas, near 120°. Lamine but little elastic. Contains Si, #e, Al, Fe, Mg, K, Na, Mn, Ca, and about 3 per cent of water with no fluor. Aracamite(?) [p. 188, and Suppl. 1]—Prof. Scacchi questions the occurrence of true atacamite at Vesuvius (op. cit., p. 197). The supposed atacamite occurs (1) in slender filaments of vitreous lustre and grass-green color; (2) in clustered acicular Opaque crystals, between brownish green and pale bluish green; (3) in an opaque crust, with rough surface and emerald-green color; (4) in a very thin crust, of a fine emerald-greeti color. The first variety which seems to be the purest passes into the second. Prof. Scacchi concludes from his various trials, that the mineral does not contain chlorine; that its composition is not constant; that ordinarily on immersing it in water, it affords an insoluble salt of a bluish color, which dissolves in nitric acid and affords reactions of sulphuric acid and copper, and may be a basic sulphate of copper. Binnrre [Suppl. 1].—This mineral which occurs with the dufrenoysite in the dol- omite of Binnen, is described by Ch. Heusser, in Pogg. xevii, 120. Crystallization, trimetric. Occurring forms prismatic, striated longitudinally, the prism J, having the acute edges replaced by 7%, and the brachydomes, 4%, 1%, 37, 27, with sometimes O, 1, ii, and a macrodome Basal angle of the dome 4%, 43° 52’; of 17,77° 32’; of 31, 100° 38’; of 2%, 116° 12’. Color pale or dark steel-gray to black; streak- powder uniformly a darker red than that of the dufrenoysite; very brittle; frac- ture perfect conchoidal. Boracite [p. 393, and Suppl. 11].—The massive boracite of Stassfurt, which differs from true boracite in its ready solubility in acids, and its easier fusibility, has been named Stassfurtite by G. Rose (Pogg. xevii, 632). The solution in heated muriatic acid deposits after a while, hydrated boracic acid. The masses are not properly structureless but have a columnar composition and the system of crystallization probably is not monometric. Chemically, boracite and stassfurtite according to the analyses, vive the same formula; and if so, the two are an example of dimorphism. H. Rose has new analyses under way; and other examinations of specimens may clear up the doubts on the subject. Boronatrocatcite [p. 894].—Analysis of this mineral from near Iquique, S. A., by Raimmelsberg (Pogg. xevii, 301): B Ca Na K 43 70 1311 6 67 0:83 35:67 = 100 817 p.c. of chlorid of sodium, 0°41 sulphate of soda, and 0°39 of sulphate of lime obtained in the analysis being excluded. This gives the formula Na B*-+-2CaB?+ 18 H. The Hayesine, similar in physical characters, which Hayes analyzed, gave him the composition Ca B?-+6H. BRAGITH, D. Forbes and T. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. xiii).—TIn indistinct, proba- bly dimetric crystals, imbedded in orthoclase, and found near Helle, Naresté, Alve, aud Askeré, Norway. Fracture uneven. H=6—6°5. G.=5:13—5:36. Color Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 251 brown; streak yellowish brown. Lustre semi-metallic. Thin splinters translucent. Decrepiiates strongly and loses water. B.B. in the platinum forceps infusible, but becomes yellow: with borax, a glass which is brownish yellow while hot. but green and finally greenish yellow on cooling. In salt of phosphorus, a skeleton of silica. Breunnerite [p. 443].—The Tautoclin of Breithaupt, occurs (N. Jahrb. f. Min. etc., 1855, 842) in scalenohedrons, R*, or R?.4R3, as pseudomorphs after calcite. Gccurs in the Himmelsfurst mine, near Freiberg; also near Sachsenburg, Schnee- berg, Przibram in Bohemia, &c. Ettling obtained for the tautoclin of Beschert- Glick, near Freiberg : C4575 Ca2748 Mg 15856 Fe925 Mn129 = 9762 Catorre [p. 435, 503, and Suppl. 1, 1].—A variety of curved columnar calcite / from Freiberg in Saxony, according to Kenngott (Pogg. xcvii, 311) has each column made up of a series of tabular crystals —}R. oo R [of the form in fig. 574 C, p. 435 of Min., only very short] united in the line of the vertical axis. The diameter is mostly 2 or 3 millimeters.—Other peculiar forms of grouping and modes of struc- ture are described in the same paper. CARNALLITE, H. Rose.—Description by H. Rose (Poge. xeviii, 161). Occurs mixed with the stone salt of Stassfurt in coarse granular masses, having a shining somewhat greasy lustre, and sometimes showing a plane surface after the action of water over the surface, as if indicating structure or cleavage, but without any dis- tinct traces of it in a fresh fracture. Dissolves easily in water. Composition ac- cording to Mr. Oesten, assistant to Prof. Rose: Mg Cl KCl NaCl CaCl #e(mixed) H (loss) 1. 31°46 24:27 9°10 2-62 0°14 3557 = 100 2. 30°51 24:27 4:55 301 0:14 36 26 = 100 The water by direct determination was 37:27. Part of this water is united to the chlorid of calcium, 2°54 p.c. in No. 1, and 2°91 in No, 2; so that the water of the pure mineral is reduced to about 33 per cent. The composition then becomes K Cl + Meg Cl+12H. The name Carnallite is after Mr. von Carnall of the Prussian Mines. Cuatcopyrire [p. 68 and Suppl. r].—An account of the Cobre Lode of Santiago — de Cuba, by D. T. Ansted, is contained in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xii, 144. Cuatysirte [p. 444].—On the origin of the carbonate of iron in the Coal Measures, W. B. Rogers, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1855, 283, and Am. J. Sci., xxi, 339. CHEROKINE, ©. U. Shepard—A species as yet imperfectly described by the author. Orystallizes like pyromorphite but has the color of carbonate of lead. Specific gravity, 48. Stated to contain phosphate of alumina and zine. [The form given, near pyromorphite, would suggest the improbability that the mineral is a phosphate of a sesquoxyd with zinc, unless a pseudomorph.—z. D. D.] CHLOROPHANERITE, G. Jenzsch.—From the amygdaloid in the vicinity of Weissig. It had been referred to chlorophzite, and ferruginous chlorite (Delessite), but differs in its very large percentage of silica. G, Jenzsch obtaine| (N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete., 1855, 798,) in a partial analysis, Silica 59:4, protoxyd of iron 12°8, water 57, the alumina, magnesia, lime, potash, soda, undetermined.—Color blackish-green ; streak dirty apple green; soft; G.==2684. BB. yields easily a magnetic glass. In muriatic acid dissolves readily, the silica separating. According to Dr. Oschatz, the particles of a crystalline group magnified, showed slight double refraction. It approaches nearest a green earth from Iceland analyzed by von Waltershausen, which gave, Si 60-085, 415-280, 6a 0:095, Mg 4954, Fe 15-723, K 5036, Na2514, H 4444 = 98131 (Vulk. Gest., p. 301). Curysouite [p. 184, and Suppl. 1, m].—A mineral looking like some kinds of amorphous garnet, occurs at Pfunders in the Tyrol, in a talcose serpentine rock traversed by veims of calcite. A specimen in the collection of M. Adam of Paris 252 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. has been analyzed by M. A. Damour and shown to be Chrysolite. He obtained (L’Institut, No, 1148, xxiv, 4, Jan. 1856): Si Ti Mg #e Mn Pie) 36°30 5:30 49°65 * 6:00 0°60 1°95==99°80 Oxygen, 18°85 2:11 19°50 1-79 0:13 173 The silica and magnesia have the oxygen ratio 1:1, as in chrysolite. But the exact condition of the titanic acid is not ascertained. [This mode of occurrence of chrysolite is analogous to that of the Boltonite (chrysolite) in granular limestone, and the Glinkite (another variety) im talcose slate. May it be that the titanium is due to a mixture with titanic iron?—p.] Conistoxirz and Heppuire [p. 465, and Suppl. m].—According to R. P. Greg, Esq., in a recent letter to the author, these two species, though curious in them- selves, have been found to be artificial. Coprarite [p. 887 and Suppl. 1].— Analysis of fibrous copiapite (stypticite) from Copiapo, Chili, by E. Tobler (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm. xcvi, 383): Sulphuric acid 31°49, sesquoxyd of iron 31°69, water 36:82 = 100. Coquette [p. 880].—Observed rather abundantly by Scacchi about fumaroles after the eruption at Vesuvius in 1855 (op. cit., p. 195). Part of it is in a brownish friable crust ; obtained by dissolving the saline crust and evaporating, in brownish- yellow heragonal crystals. Also as a yellowish crust, in many parts tinged green, compact in texture, and with a very bright lustre in the fresh fracture. Cryouite [p. 97 and Suppl. m].—J. W. Tayler, Esq., has given a description of the mode of occurrence of cryolite in Greenland, with wood-cut illustrations, in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. xii, 140. The locality is at Evigtok, about twelve miles from Arksut, on the Fiord of that name. The rock is gneiss and granitic gneiss. It is intersected by a vein of quartzrock containing coarsely crystallized feldspar, cryo- lite. and ores of iron, tin, lead, zine, tantalum, ete., running about southwest, besides other small veins and masses of eryolite; and to the east and west there is a trap- dvke. The main mass of cryolite forms a bed or vein parallel to the strata, running nearly east and west, dipping S 45°, and is about 80 feet thick and 300 long. It is bounded along the walls by a band of spathic iron, quartz, and in some parts by fluor and galena, while near the walls in the cryolite there are more or less galena, copper and iron pyrites, etc. Tantalite and cassiterite occur in the cryolite. The galena contains 45 oz. of silver to the ton and is worked. In its lower part the cryolite is black, and the white color of the upper part is attributed to exposure to heat. The author infers “that the trap now found at each end of the cryolite has formerly overlain it, heating it superficially and rendering it white.” CYANOCHROME, Scacchi.—A sulphate of potash and copper, among the pro- ducts of Vesuvius, at the eruption of 1855 (op. cit., p. 191).—-In clear blue crystals obtained by dissolving and evaporating the saline crust, from the lava of Vesuvius ; also in azure blue spots upon the white crust. Composition (}K +4Cu) $+ 3H. Form of crystals monoclinic. C (or inclination of vertical axis) = 75° 30’. Occurring planes, O, 14, 27, 77, 1, 7, 22,12 O:i%= 75° 30’, O: 1¢0=153° 56’, Oi.42 == 1419 47', Or Zea 116° £9") F- = 108" te” Cyanostte [p. 380].—Observed at Vesuvius by Scacchi, among the products of the eruption of 1855. Op. cit., p. 189. Analysis of a specimen from Copiapo, Chili, by E. Tobler (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm. xevi, 8383): Sulphuric acid 32-41, oxyd of copper 30°77, water (as loss) 36:°32==100. Occurs with stypticite and both results from the decomposition of chaleupyrite, DartHouite [p. 334 and Suppl. 1, m].—F. Schroder has made many new measure- ments of Datholite crystals (Pogg. xcviii, 34), and concludes from them that the form is monoclinic, with the inclination of the axis, 90° 7’. He figures a crystal having the planes in the annexed table. Third Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy. 253 O O Qi 23 | 94 | 22 1 | | 4i 44] 42 | 44 | 43 24 24 om) v4 i2 ee Vesa Pete he cts. | MMi Tk. et elt | oo 4 4? ~4 4 —|—-|— | —_| — al NIA vel are REMMI URES Sie Reetter wl (late 62 | 68 33 iy aR Ae ea yl Ce) aS a Ge I | | 82 a I} 22 Andreasberg. coves [Semumas ‘erauese| come | sume 42 —27 -2 22 mt — 3 —EEE ~l LS: 4 American. [The symbols, for convenience of comparison, are made to correspond with those in the Min p. 335; by subsututing for the values of the axes a:b: c, 2a: 0: de, they are converted into those of Schroder. To show farther the relations of the American crystals (figs. 489, 490, 491, 493 of Min.) a table of the planes is added, the form being taken as monoclinic. ‘In the American crystals, the prism of 115° 26’ (Z) is the dominant one, while in those of Europe, that of 76° 44’ (i2) is dominant. } Schréder gives the following values to some of the angles; J: J==115° 19’, i2 : 12 = 76° 36’, 22: 22 (front) = 120° 58’, -2:-2 (front) = 131943’, O:i= SOO eg ope 3’, Ot 22. == 1419 7% OO: Qe == 1479 89%, OO; —2 = 180° 7" Drattoeire [p. 446]—A variety from Oberneisen, named Himbeerspath by Breithaupt, and occurring in acute rhombohedrons with truncated summits, afforded A. Birnbacher (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm. xcvili, 144): Carbonate of manganese 91:31, carbonate of lime 5°71, carbonate of iron 3:06. Dotomite [p. 441, and Suppl. 1, 1], near Lettowitz, ete, Moravia, E. F. Glocker, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 98. Durrenoysite [p. 77, and Suppl. 1, 1].—Ch. Heusser desoribes this species anew in Pogg. xevii,117. Forms: the dodecahedron (J); trapezohedron (2-2); cube with the angles replaced by 2-2; cube with planes, J, 2-2; cube with planes J, 2-2, 3; cube with planes J, 2-2, 1 (octahedron), 6-6. Color on fresh fracture black, some- times brownish or greenish; streak .cherry-red. Hardness a little above that of fluor ; brittle. Eptnote [p. 206, and Suppl. m].--Occurs in beautiful crystals at Roseville, Byram Township, Sussex Co., New Jersey.—Kitchell’s Geol. Rep., p. 171. Ersomirt [p. 384].—Occurs in Tennessee, at different places, and most remarka- bly at the Alum Cave in Sevier, in a mountainous region on the head waters of the West Fork of Little Pigeon river. Under the shelving rock, (“rock-house”) masses of nearly pure epsom salt, almost a cubic foot in volnme, have been obtained. Saf- ford’s Rep., p. 119.—Also found at many places in Spain especially in the province of Toledo, near Madrid.—Also formed at Vesuvius at the eruptions of 1850 and 1855. Scacchi, op. cit. p. 188. 254 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Ervpescite [p. 38].—Analysis of ore from Coquimbo in Chili by W. Bicking (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm. xevi, 244) :--Sulphur 25°46, copper 60°80, iron 13 67=99°93. Feipspar [p. 228, and Suppl. 1, m].—Analyses (1 to 4) of Glassy Feldspars, by Dr. G. Lewinstein (Ueber die Zusamm. des Glas. Feldspaths, etc., Berlin, 1856). No. 1 from volcanic sand; 2, 3, 4, from trachyte and trachytic conglomerate : Si Al #e Ca Mg Na K 1. Rokeskill, Hifel, 66:65 1891 —~- 149 076 445 %74=100 G=2°578 Oxygen, 8528 883 —— 042 O31 115 1°31 2. Perlenhardt, [65:26] 17:62 091 1:05 0:88 2-49 11:79=100 Oxygen, 33:94 823.030 029 035 064 1:96 . 8. Drachenfels, [6559] 1645 158 097 058 2:04 12°84=100 G.=2:60 Oxygen, 3440 769 047 027 020 052 217 4, Pappelsberg, [66:03] 1787 052 047 019 608 886=100 G=2°616 Oxygen, 34:28 835 016 0138 OO7 155 1:50 In No. 3, the silica as directly determined equals 66:12. The analyses give quite closely the orthoclave formula, R Sit # Si®. _ If the iron be taken as protoxyd, the analyses correspond as well to the formula 9R Si+-7# Si?. Ch. Heusser refers the Hyalophan of Waltershausen [Suppl. 1], to Adularia (Pogg. xcvii, 128). It occurs in the dolomite of the Binnen valley, and agrees with that species in physical and crystallographic characters. The 2°28 p. c. of sulphuric acid found by von Waltershausen he attributes to mixture with pyrites, which is common in the rock in minute crystals. In seven different crystals examined with the blowpipe, he found no trace of sulphur. Moreover dolomite and heavy spar often occur as other impurities and partly may account for some of the results in the analysis. The Weissigite of G. Jenzsch has afforded him (N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete. 1855, 800): Si Al Mg Ca K LY oe leas, de 65:00 19°54 161 019 12°69 0°56 0°35 ==99°94. 2. 65°21 19°71 0°55 The weissigite occurs in amygdaloidal cavities, in layers with chalcedony, ete. No. 1 is from the oldest or lowest of two layers, the color flesh red; G. = 2°551— 2553. No.2 is from asecond layer; color paler rose-red to reddish-white ; G. = 2°538—2°558. The oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica in No. 1 is 3°15 : 9:13 : 83°75, which is near the orthoclase ratio. Part of the Weissigite No. 2 is pseudomorphous after Laumontite. The analysis of No. 1 above comes nearest to the feldspar of Radeberg (see Suppl. m1, under feldspar). The same amygdaloidal cavities contain the chlorophanerite and the weissigite. G. Bischof obtained (Lehrb. Geol. ii, 2171) from a feldspar pseudomorph after Laumontite from the Kilpatrick Hills (where others occur with the form of anal- cime also) : Si Al #e Ca Mg kK Na ign. 62°00 20 00 0°64 060 trace 1654 1:08 0O87=101°72 Oxygen, 32:19 9°35 0:19 017 FEL OV - Fercusonire.—See Tyrirez, this Supplement. FREISLEBENITE [p. 79].—A mineral which has been referred to Freislebenite and is probably near Bournonite, is described as new by Kenngott, in Pogg. xevili, 165. Occurs in thin 4-sided tables (2 millimeters thick and about 12 across) of the mono- clinic system, with two planes making up each margin of the table. Acute plane angle of base about 42°. H=25. G.=6:06. Color iron black, streak black. Brittle. B.B. fuses easily to a black shining globule and yields finally a globule of silver. The silver constitutes about 30 per cent. The charcoal becomes covered with fumes of antimony and lead, and the mineral probably consists of silver, lead, antimony, and sulphur. Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 255 Gatacrire [Suppl. 1, u]—In the author’s 1st supplement (this Journal, May, 1855), he pointed out that the analysis of galactite by von Hauer gave the formula of natrolite, whence, he concluded, that galactite is probably nutrolite. Authentic specimens of the mineral have since been examined by Dr. Heddle (Phil. Mag. [4], xi, 272), and the composition of natrolite obtained in each case. The following (1, 2, 8) are his results, together with analyses of related specimens: Si Al Ga Na H 1. Glenfarg, white, 4824 27:00 0:82 14:82 924 = 10012 2 « red, 47:84 27-112 4312 11:304 10:24 = 100808 3. Campsie Hills, 47:324 27:36 263 13:354 10-°392— 101 060 4. Bishoptown, white, 47-60 2660 016 1536 9:56 = 9978 5. wos “pink, 47-76 2720 ° 093 1428 956 =) 99°72 6. haa 48-033 25:°261 2313 13-975 9:723 #e0 865, Mg 0:403=100-573 7. Dumbarton Moor, 46:96 26-908 376 1283 9:50 = 99-958 Gatena [p. 39, 506, and Suppl. 1, 1]—A_ galena containing 87 p. c. of sulphur, and also 51°30 of sulphate of lead has been observed at Neu-Sinka, Siebenburg, and described by R Hofmann. This mechanical mixture has been called super-sulphu- retted lead and also Johustonite. Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 1. Garnet [p. 190, and Suppl. 1, 11].—An analysis of the green garnet which occurs in brevicite on the island of Stokoe in the Brevig Fiord afford Dr. D. Forbes (Edinb. N. Ph. J. [2], iui, Jan. 1856): Si Al Fe Mn Ca Me Nad& loss 1. 34 96 8°73 20:55 2:40 32-09 trace 1:27 2. 33 84 918 20°31 31:92 trace —— 3. 23 94 30°14 The results correspond to the formula, as Dr. Forbes states, (4Ca? +4¥#e) Si=Caé® Si+#e Sis=silica 35°61, lime 82:98, sesquioxyd of iron (alumina) 31:41=100, whence the mineral is identical in composition with melanite, notwithstanding its color. The crystals lie together, forming 6-sided prisms, or are distinct rhombic dodecahe- drons. Color fine leek-green. G. (from 76 crystals at 60° F.) 3°64. . A Melanite from the Kaiserstuhl afforded Schill (G. Leonh. Min. Badens, 1855, in N. Jahrb. 1855, 838): ; Si Al Ca Mg Fe Mn 45°80 11-00 22°10 2:00 18:25 1A == SS85 [In Suppl. 1, under Garnet, for Bi read Si.] GILBERTITE [p. 223].-—-E. Zschau states his opinion that Gilbertite at Graupen is derived from tupaz, where it occurs associated with topaz, tin ore, fluor, apatite and quartz, in gneiss; and the same he regards as probably true of the gilbertite of Al- . tenberg, Ehrenfriedersdorf, ete—(Letter to G. J. B., as under Urpirtz.) GuaserirtE [p. 365].— According to Scacchi (op. cit., p. 186) this sulphate of pot- ash, which is not common at Vesuvius, was rather abundant at the eruption of 1848, and occurred sparingly in that of 1855. Guano.—Prof. C. U. Shepard has given names to different portions of the har- dened or “ petrified” guano of Monk’s Island, in the Caribbean Sea (Am. J. Sci., [2], xxii, 96) calling them collectively pyroguanite minerals. He remarks that the guano has ‘“ been subjected to the agency of heated trap rock, whereby the greater portion of it has been thoroughly fused.” [The guano overlies and incrusts trap. But this appearance of fusion is merely a result of the consolidation and concretion through infiltrating waters. The same kind covers unhardened guano.—zs. p. p.] The tuberose and reniform massive guano material of a grayish white to brown- ish color, he has named pyroclasite, the name alluding to its flying to pieces when heated. H=4. G=2:36—2-4. “lt consists of not far from 80 p.c. of phosphate of lime and 10 p.c. of water; while the remainder is made up of a little insoluble matter, carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda and traces of chlorid of sodium and fluorine.” [The analyses by others give varying results.] 256 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Another of the so-called species is named Glaubapatite. It is described as occur- ring in small tabular crystals, and in druses, forming botryoidal and stalactitie masses, with columnar radiating flattened fibres; also massive; color pale yellowish or greenish-brown; translucent; H.=3:5; G.=2'6. Also chocolate-brown to nearly black when massive. Chemical examination afforded, Phosphate of lime 74°00, sul- phate of soda 15:10, water 10°30, organic matter, sulphate of lime and chlorid of sodium, a trace 99°40, [From the composition obtained, it can hardly be a chemi- cal compound. ] Epiglaubite is the name of the third guano product. It occurs “in small aggre- gates or interlaced masses of minute semitransparent crystals of a shining vitreous lustre, which are always implanted upon druses of glaubapatite. H. about 25.” It is stated to be “a largely hydrated phosphate, chiefly of lime, and may also contain magnesia and soda.” Soluble in dilute muriatic acid. B.B. fuses easily to a semi- transparent colorless glass tinging the flame green. Gypsum [p. 877, and Suppl. 11].—Gray’s Cave, Sumner Co., Tennessee, affords fine specimens of selenite, snowy gypsum, and “alabaster rosettes.”—Safford’s Rep., p. 119. HARRISITE, C. U. Shepard—A sulphuret of copper, like copper glance in com- position but cubie in cleavage like the artificial sulphuret. Occurs in imperfectly formed cubes and octahedrons, and also disseminated in seams and massive. Color grayish-black. G.=65-4. Occurs at the Canton Mine, Georgia, with galena in quartz and also crystals of staurotide. A mass of 50 lbs. has been got out.—(Rep. on Can- ton Mine.) | Hepp.irE.—See under ConistTonire. Hematite or Sprcutar Iron [p. 118, and Suppl. 1].—-Scacchi has made observa- tions on the hematite of the last eruption of Vesuvius (1855).—[Op. cit. p. 172]. He finds the hematite in crystals and also stalactites and incrustations on the scoria about the small cone. Among them are brilliant crystals, rhombohedrons, of 86° 51’, and double hexagonal pyramids having the faces inclined to a plane truncating the summit 141° 48’. There are also exceedingly thin scales or lamin which are a lively blood red by transmitted light. Besides these, there are octuhedral crystals, some with their edges truncated, which are very brilliant, and according to exact measurement the octahedrons are regular or monometric. These octahedrons are intersected, often intricately so, by microscopic lamin which cut through parallel to the octahedral faces, and these laminz consist of hematite or specular iron, being crystalline plates flattened parallel to O (OF), and having on their edges faces of & and other planes of this species. These faces & are so exceedingly minute that M. Scacchi has not been able to as- certain any definite relation in position to those of the octahedron. The specular iron of the lava, has often some magnetic qualities. A lamellar variety of the eruption of May, 1855, does not affect the magnetic needle, but manifests sensibly polar magnetism with the magnetoscope. Rhombohedral crystals with truncated summits, from the valley of Cancherone, and bipyramidal crystals from either Somma or Vesuvius (the locality being uncertain) are sensibly magnetic with the needle, and magnetipolar with the magnetoscope. A group of octahedral crys- tals from the same valley, united ona crust of hematite, is notably magnetic and magnetipolar. Octahedral crystals intersected by lamelle of hematite are strongly magnetic and sensibly magnetipolar. The stalactites of hematite vary much in magnetic qualities. Prof. Scacchi questions whether any of the crystals are pseudomorphs, and whether they are magnetite altered to hematite or hematite to magnetite. He says the first is not probable, as hematite is the usual product of sublimation about the voleano; and the second cannot he, as the crystals then should be all rhombohedral. Perhaps, he says, the sesquioxyd of iron is dimorphous: but on this point more evi- dence is required. HITCHCOCKITE, C. U. Shepard—No description given, except as follows (Rep. on Canton (Ga.) Mine, 1856)--a white earthy shell, sometimes no thicker than a mere varnish, on marcasite, at a mine affording galena, copper pyrites, blende, mis pickel, automolite. “It is a hydrated phosphate of alumina with oxyd of zinc.” Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 257 Hornstenpe [p. 170, and Suppl. 1, m].--Crystallographic and optical relations to pyroxene, W. Haidinger, Sitzungsb. Akad., Wien, xvii, 456.——An important paper. Lanruanite [p. 456, and Suppl. 1].—Reported by Prof. C. U. Shepard as observed at the Canton Mine, Georgia (Rep. 1856), “at one spot in the 96 feet level, where it was found ia very beautiful pink-colord crystals, lining small cavities of botryoidal white iron-pyrites.” Leap [p..17].—Native lead and lead ochre are reported as occurring at Zomela- huacan in the state of Vera Cruz, ina communication by M. Noggerath (Zeits. d. geol. Ges., vi, 674). The locality is a valley over 3000 feet deep whose upper rocks are porphyry, melaphyre and basalt, trachyte, with metamorphic limestone and other beds beiow. The limestone in some parts still retains fossils, as Amnonites Bulk- landi and Ampullaria angulata. he formation is 900 feet thick. ‘Ihe native lead and ochre occur in a white granular limestone. The lead ochre is somewhat foliated, of a wax or reddish yellow color to reddish where in contact with the native lead. The amygdaloid from near Weissig, according to G. Jenzsch, sometimes contains in its cavities native lead, overlying pyrites, weissigite, chalcedony, quartz, galena, hornstone, &e—Jahrb. f. Min. 1855, 805. Native lead is stated to occur also in the Altai (v. Hingenau’s Oest. Zeits. 1854, in N. Jahrb. f. Min. etc. 1855, 887) seven miles from Mt. Alatau in the gold region. It is described as accompanying limonite, magnetite, and galena, in irregular masses a drachm in weight. Grains of native lead are also found with the gold near Ekath- erinenburg in the Urals. Levcire [p. 231].—The leucite of the modern lavas of Vesuvius, according to De- ville (L’Institut, No. 1178), contains much more soda than that of the old lavas of Somma. The oxygen ratio for the soda and potash in the former is 1: 209 for the crystals from the lava of 1855, and 1: 821 for those from the old lavas of Somma (Hossa Grande). The same for the lavas of 1847, according to Damour, is 1: 1 67. Rammelsberg (Monatsb. Preuss, Akad. March, 1856, 148) has published a short paper on leucite and its pseudomorphs, remarking on the occurrence of a large pro- portion of soda in the altered leucite (2 of soda to 3 of potash). Leucopyaire [p. 61, 507].—Composition by G. A. Behncke (Pogg. xeviii, 18): NS As Sb Fe 1. Geyer, ‘ G.=6:246—6:321, 607 5894 1:37 32:99—99-30 2. Breitenbrunn, G.=7282—7:259, 1:10 69°85 105 27:-41==99:41 Regarding the sulphur as being combined with part of the iron and arsenic as mis- pickel, the analyses, this excluded, beeome—the Ist, arsenic 67 06, iron 32-94=Fe? As? ; the 2nd, arsenic 72°19, iron 27'71—=Fe As?2, KeiLaavire [p, 341, and Suppl. 1].—D. Forbes and T. Dahll (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. Xill,) mention the occurrence of masses of Keilhauite weighing 15 to 20 pounds, at Alve in Norway. H=65. G.=3:72. Two perfect cleavages cruss at 138°. Color dull brown. Streak pale dirty yellow. B.B infusible and unchanged. Specimen _from near Naresté had G.=3 519; and a pale grayish brown, from Alve, G.=3°603. In the Edinb. N. Ph. J., [2], iii, Jan. 1856, Dr. D. Forbes states that the percentage of titanic acid should read 28-04, instead of 28°84. A comparison of the angles of the crystals with those of sphene, made by Professor Miller of Cambridge, is here given. : Kicunire [p. 170].—Analyses by Rev. J. A. Galbraith (J. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vi, 165): Si Al Fe (Ga Me) i’ Na? 1. Dalkey Quarry, Co. Dublin, 5011 2937 2-23 0:34 103 6:71 060 803—98 42 2. Killiney, 90-45 30:13 353 —— 109 4:81 095 7:53—48 54 The first gives the oxygen ration for R, &, Si and H. 1:597:11-58: 3-10; and the second, 1:6:18:1176: 296; which Mr. Galbraith takes at 1:6:12:3, and writes the formula R Si+Al?Si8+3H. The results agree very nearly with those of Lehunt and Blyth, and ditfer from the analysis of Mallet [see Min. p. 170]. Specific gravity SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.——SEPT., 1856. 33 258 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. of No. 1, 2678; of the same in fragments 2688. Lithia was carefully looked for, and none found. Maenesire [p. 441, 507, and Suppl. 11] —Occurs in crystalline schist near Bruck in Styria, according to Fr. Foetterle, (Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs, 1855, 68). Analysis afforded, My 6 9922. Fe G 069, Ca trace, insoluble 0-09; another of the same, 94-77, 154, 0°86, 283. Specific gravity =3033. H.=4+5. R: R=107° 16’. Marcasite [p. 60].—An analysis of a specimen from the Oxford clay near Han- nover, afforded Dr. A. Vogel, Jr. (N. Jahrb. f. Min. etce.,, 1855, 676), Sulphur 527, iron 46 9=99 6. Mispicket [p. 62, 509, and Suppl. 1, m1.— Analyses by G. A. Behncke, in the lab- oratory of Prof. H. Rose (Pogg. xcvili, 184): As Sb S Fe 1. Sahla, Sweden, G.=5'8205, 42:05 1:10 18 52 37-63 = 99-32 2. Alienberg, Silesia, G—=6 042, 43°78 1:05 20°25 34°35 = 99°43 3. Freiberg, Saxony, G=6046, 4453 -—— 2038 44:32 = 99:53 4. Landeshuth, Silesia, G=6067—6:106, 44:02 0:92 19:77 34:83 = 99°54 ok in 1, with trace of Bismuth; in 2, trace of copper; in 4, trace of copper and ead. The first three analyses correspond closely to the received formula Fe As?+-Fe S8?. For No. 4, Mr. Behncke writes the formula 8Fe S2+2Fe? As*. But it has the same crystalline form as the true mispickel, and the peculiar composition may therefore be due to impurities. An ore related to mispickel, from Zwiesel, having G.==6°21, afforded Dr. A. Vogel, Jr. on analysis (N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete. 1855, 674), Arsenic 54°70, sulphur 7°44, iron 35 20==97'°34, This is near the resuit of Jordan’s analysis of an ore from the mine Felicitas of Andreasberg, which gave, Arsenic 55:00, iron 36:48, sulphur 8°34==99 79. It gives the formula Fe S+-Fe? As, while that of ordinary mispickel is Fe S*-++Fe As?*, and therefore the author regards it as a distinct species. Nitre [p. 433, and Suppl. 1].—The nitre caves of Tennessee occur along the lime- stone slopes and in the gorges of the Cumberland table-land. A company is formed for working the nitrous earth in White County.—Safford’s Rep., p. 117. Opat [p. 151]—According to E. F. Glocker, in Luckau, Moravia, a metamorphic limestone associated with gneiss contains a bed of brown hornstone and green opal (Jahrb. k k. geol. Reichs, 1855, 98). The hornstone bed is 2 to 4 feet thick, and in some parts contains cavities with quartz crystals. The opal has a beautiful leek- green color, passing into yellow, brown and black, and occurs in a layer $ to 2 inches thick. Unghwarite is sparingly associated with the opal; and occasionally pellucid hyalite is found in grouped concretions in a calc sinter. OzoceritE [p. 474, and Suppl. 1].—In the Carpathian sandstone formation.—-Glocker, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 101. PATERAITE.—A sulphuret of molybdenum containing 3 of sulphur to 1 of mo- lybdenum (Mo 8%), has been thus named by Haidinger.—E. Zschau, in a letter to G. J. Brush. Prctouite [p. 805, and Suppl. m].—Radiated crystallizations of pectolite occur in Ayrshire, having the columns 8 feet in length.—R. P. Greg, Jr. Prauzite [p. 469]— According to Kenngott, occurs at Mount Chum near Tuffer in Styria; and near Tuifer, 3700 pounds (avoirdupois) have been obtained. It is a black resin much resembling a slaty and lamellar black coal_—Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reich- - ganst.. 1855. PICROMERID, Scacchi.—A sulphate of magnesia and copper, (Mg. Cu) S+3H, obtained with the cyanochrome of Vesuvius from solution, and similar in form, the two being isomorphous, but color white. Angles: Cor O:7=15° 12’, O:1li= 154° 39’, O: 2i=116° 41’, 7: =109° 50’—Op. cit., p. 191. Pinevite [p. 838].—At Sternberg in Moravia.—Glocker, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 99. Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 259 Pratinum [p. 12, and Suppl. 1, u).—Composition of the platinum of Borneo, by Max Bécking of Bonn (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 243):—Platinum 82-60, iridium 0°66, osmium 0°30, gold 0°20, iron 10°67, copper 0°13, iridosmine 380=98 36. It eccurs with yrains of iridosmine, gold, chromic iron, magnetite. Among the plati- num grains, there are some octahedrons of very regular form and also the cube. PYROMELANE, C. U. Shepard, Am. J. Sci., [2], xxii, 96—Found in grains or kernels among the sands at the gold washings of McDonald Co., N. C.; the grains irregular and pitted, looking somewhat like those of chondrodite. H =65; G.= 8°87 ; color reddish-brown to nearly black; translucent; lustre resinous to resino- vitreous. Composition undetermined, no analyses being given. Said to be “essentially a titanate of alumina and iron, with only traces of glucina? and lime. It may also contain zirconia.” Pyroscierite [p 291.]—The steatite-like mineral from Snarum occurring with the Vélknerite, partly resembling a talc and partly a mica, which has been analysed by Hochstetter and Giratowski, is the subject of a note by Rammelsberg (Pogg. xcvii, 800), who has analysed a specimen named mica from the same place. The analyses give— Si Al Fe Mg H ], 32°03 12°52 4°48 37°52 16°19 = 102°74, Hochstetter. 2. 380'U2 13°2 31 379 17.0) = 0 Tk, Giratowski. 3. 34 88 12°48 581 34:02 13°68 = 100'87, Rammelsberg. The last (and the others nearly correspond) give the oxygen ratio for R. #, Si, H, 13. 37:767: 18:12 :1216=2:1:3:2, and afford the formula 2Mg? Si+-Al Si+6H, the formula deduced by Hartwell for the Kemmererite of Bissersk. ['The Voigtite, beyond, appears to be related to this compound. ] Quartz [p. 145, and Suppl. i1.]—Capillary crystals, some an inch long, occur not far from Walchow, Moravia.—Glocker, Jabrb_ k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 100. A singular compound structure in a crystal of quartz is described and figured by Kenngott (Pogg. xcvii, 628). A single hexagonal prism terminates in 6 prisms which coalesce across the centre so as to make a regular star of six rays. QuicksitveR [p. 14.'—Near Cividale, not far from Gagliano, in Venetian Lom- bardy, native quicksilver has been found in marl, connected with the “macigno,” regarded as a part of the eocene nummulitic formation. Quicksilver in drift de- posits has been found at Sulbeck near Luneburg, at [lye west of Deva in Transy]- vania, and at Montpelier. Near Eszbetek in Transylvania, and near Neumarkt in Ga- licia, springs issue from the Carpathian Sandstone, which are said sometimes to bear along globules of mercury, especially after thunder storms,—Jahrb. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst., Nov. 1855, in Quart. J. Geol. Soc. xii, Mise. 8. Ruoponite [p. 167, and Suppl. 1, Paisbergite.|—Under the name of Rhodonite, R. P. Greg, Esq., has described some brilliant crystals from the Paisberg iron mine near Phillipstadt in Sweden, which Dauber has referred to Paisbergite. Dauber’s measurements are given in Suppl. 11, under Paissrreire. Greg also makes the form triclinic, though near pyroxene. The planes J and J’ (which are the analogues of the fundamental prism of pyroxene, see Suppl. 11) give the anvle 87° 20’; cleavage highly perfect parallel to /, less so parallel to Z’; also highly perfect parallel to O. Angles according to Greg, to which those obtained by Dauber and the correspond- ing angles of pyroxene are added :— kK 9. Grec. Davuser. In Pyroxene. LET OOS Se BTS 88" 87° 5! Ont Sasea0" 98° 282! 100° 57! DP MONO: AVEO 8S! a 100° 57! 3 4.¢ 136% 20", 1362'S": 183° 824’ :7% 188920’ 1889114’ 186° 273’ >-2 148942’ 148947’ 144° 35! :-2/142° 30’ 142° 894’ 144° 35/ +2? 86° 35’ 85° 24’ may NN SS 260 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. [Figure 1 is derived from Greg’s figure. It represents the crystal flattened par- allel to Z Figure 2 is the normal form of the erystals, and corresponds closely to Dauber’s crystals as represented by him. It remains to be ascertained whether there is any Rhodonite with a monoclinic form ; in other words, whether Fowlerite or Paisbergite is not true Rhodonite.] — SaL-amMontac [p. 92.]—Reported by Scacchi as formed at Vesuvius at the erup- tions of 1855, but, as usual, where the lava has spread over soil with vegetation. It sometimes presented the form of the rhombic dodecahedron with cavernous faces : in 1850, it occurred in twins. Sart {p 90, and Suppl. m.]—Announced by Scacchi as among the products of the Vesuvian eruption of 1855, (Op. cit.. p. 183,) occurring at a small cone of erup- tion, in small cubes, incrustations, stalactites. Some chlorid of potassium, and also sulphate of potassa exists with the common salt in the stalactites. Scacchi also announces the probable occurrence of chlorid of magnesium in the saline crusts, together with the chlorid of manganese. The last was detected among the saline products of the eruption of 1855 (op. cit., p. 181.) It was detected in the crust by treating it with distilled water and testing with ferrocyanid of potassium, when the white precipitate thrown down acquired after a while a pale rose tint. Other trials also were made. SerPentIne [p. 282, 511 and Suppl. 1, n.J—The Serpentine Rock of Roxbury and other places, Vermont, has been analyzed by A. A. Hayes (Proc. Bost. Soc N H., Dec. 1855, and July 1856, and Am. J. Sci., xxi, 382), and shown to consist largely of carbonate of magnesia ; the associated white spar is this species pure. He regards the rock as made up of this carbonate along with different silicates. An average of the rock of Roxbury afforded 38-00 of the carbonate and 6200 of associated min- erals, The rock of Proctorsville, Vt. gave 33:45 of Mg ©, leaving 6655 for the rest, consisting of $i 36:10, Mg 18-70, Fe, Mn, O, 3:40, 41 1:13, chromic iron 0:92, H 6 2199-91. In another specimen of the same, the proportions of magnesite to the rest was 26:40 : 73°60.—The magnesite is attacked by muriatic acid with great difficulty. The same serpentines had been previously examined by Dr. Jackson, who states and still holds (Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., Feb. and July, 1856) that excluding the veins and some admixture of carbonate of magnesia, the serpentine has the usual compo- sition, being a hydrous silicate of magnesia. Sriver [p. 15]—A few filaments of native silver observed at a copper mine a mile from the Cheshire barytes mine, Ct—S. Smith, in Proc. Amer. Assoc., ix, 188. SmitusoniTe [p. 447, and Suppl. 1]—Pseudomorphs of Smithsonite having the form of dolomite, have been observed at the Lancaster zinc mines.—W. J. Taylor, Am. J. Sci., [2], xxi, 427. SpueEne [p. 268].—A pulverulent decomposed sphene affording reactions for water (125 per cent) and titanic acid, has been named Xanthitane by C. U. Shepard (Am. J. Sci. |2], xxii, 96). The color pale yellowish white; lustre feeble; brittle ; hard- ness = 3'°5; G = 27--3:0. No analysis has been made. Found in a decomposing feldspar, associated with zircon, at Green river, Henderson Co., N.C. StanniTE [p. 512.)—Analysis by Bischof (Chem. u. phys. Geol., ii, 2026). Si Sn Al #e Oa ign. 51:57 38°91 453 3°55 0°16 043 = 99:15 It appears hence to be a mixture of different substances. It is probably a pseudo- morph after feldspar, in which tin ore has replaced much of the original ingredients. It occurs massive, with a small conchoidal fracture. SravuroTIpE [p. 261j.—Found at the Lead mine, Canton, Georgia, in the quartz or quartzose inica slate which is the gangue of the vein, sometimes penetrating the pyrites and copper ore. The crystals are “rarely thicker than a large-sized needle.” Prof. Shepard says that they appear to be identical with the Partschin of Haidinger, (see Suppl. r) [but partschin is a very different mineral from staurotide, having the garnet oxygen ratio.] | Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 261 Strsnire or Stibine (Antimony Glance) [p. 33].—Occurs in Katharinenburg in the Urals. Kokscharov, Min. Russl. ii, 163. StitsirE [p. 332]—A mineral related to Stilbite has been described by J. W. Mallet (this Journ. xxii, 179). Coarse granular massive, grains cleavable, pearly on two opposite faces, monoclinic?, hardness a little above that of calcite, G.=2'252. With strong muriatic acid yields a jelly. Composition— , si Al Ca Mg Ke, little Na H 53°95 20°13 12°86 trace 0:87 12°429=100'23 corresponding nearly to Ca Si-+ Al Si? + 34H —From the Isle of Skye, Scotland. STILPNOMELANE [p. 287]—Observed by E. F. Glocker, in Moravia and Eastern Silesia, at Seitendorf near Troppau, Barn, two miles from Sternberg in Moravia, at Sternberg, and at Liskowitz and Wachtersdorf, and Jessenetz. The rock containing it is clay slate or argillite, probably of Devonian age. It is often associated with chlorite, calcite, and magnetite. and sometimes with pyrites and limonite. Chlorite especially is its common attendant, and the two have close resemblances, so that when mixed they are distinguished with some difficulty. TanTaLite [p. 851]—Tantalite from Chanteloube in Limoges, has given Dr. G. Jenzsch the following composition (Pogg. xcvii, 104): Ta Zr Sn Fe Mn cf 83:55 1:54 1:02. —s-: 14-48 ir. ==100' 59 Gr 7-403 2; 78-98 5°72 236 ¥e13-62 tr. =10068 G.=7:027—7:042 The second analysis is of specimens partially altered by exposure. The fresh pieces have a conchoidal fracture, submetallic adamantine lustre. H.=6°5, streak iron- black to blackish-brown. The specimens analyzed had been received by H. Rose from M. Damour. THENARDITE [p. 865].—Scacchi has described (loc. cit.) an anhydrous sulphate of soda under the name of pyrofechnite, (alluding to its voleanic origin) found on the scoria of the eruption at Vesuvius of 1855. On being dissolved and evaporated, octahedral trimetric crystals were obtained. Calling the planes of the octahedron 1, the planes are J, 17, 1, 33; and the angles J: J=118° 87’, 17: 17 (over base) 128° 58’, 1:1, basal, == 135° 21’, pyramidal 123° 39’ and 74° 36’, 33 : 33 basal, = 153° 41’, pyramidal 63° 48’ and 123°2’. [The planes and angles are those of The- nardite, a described octahedron of which has the angles, 185° 41, 128° 48’ and 74°18’. See Brooke and Miller’s Min., p.534. The angles in the author’s Min., are from Hausmann.—z. p. p.] Tritomite [p. 311].—According to Dr. D. Forbes, the crystallization of tritomite is doubtful (Edinb. N. Ph. J., (2), ui, Jan. 1856). G.==3°908. Composition accord- ing to his analysis : Si W(winSn)Al Ca Me Na Y ta €e Fe Mm H 21:16 395 286 404 009 033 464 1241 37°64 268 1:10 868=99:58 Dr. Forbes states that the received formula # Si-+ 2H is probably as correct as any other which can at present be proposed. TSCHEFFKINITE [p. 341].—Description by Kokscharov in Min. Russl. ii, 150. He states that he knows of five specimens of the mineral, and that most of the so-called Tscheffkinite is Ural-orthite. Tyrite (Suppl. 11.—This species, described by D. Forbes, is referred to Ferguson- ite by A. Kenngott (Pogg. xcvii, 622). His specimens were received from Dr. Bondi of Dresden, who suggested on sending them a possible relation to that species. They were from Helle and Tromsée near Arendal. One of them is a portion of a crystal sufficient to establish its hemihedral dimetric character and a correspondence in the occurring planes, these planes being O, 1, 33 [figure in Min., p. 8501, and giving, as nearly as can be determined, the same angles. Haidinger describes Fergusonite as 262 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. having traces of a basal cleavage. These crystals show no distinct traces. Color brownish-black. Lustre between submetallic and waxy. Thin splinters a yellow - ish brown translucence on the edge. Streak pale grayish brown. H.=6°0. G=5 555; another piece 5100, which is below that of fergusonite for which Allan obtained 5838, and Turner 5800. The tyrite strongly decrepitates before the blowpipe while the fergusonite only very slightly so. The evidence from form and most of the physical characters is so strong that we can hardly doubt the identity. URDITE, D. Forbes and 7. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. xiii)—Occurs in granite near Noterd in Norway. Crystals clinohedral. Color yellowish-brown to brown; streak pale grayish-yellow. Lustre greasy. Subtranslucent. G. of a fragment of a crystal 5°204; 5:19, 5°26. Ina tube no water. BB. infusible, but glows and color becomes darker on cooling; with borax in the reducing flame, a glass which is yel- low, somewhat greenish while hot, and colorless on cooling; with salt of phospho- rus, a skeleton of silica. No reaction of titanium or manganese. On charcoal affords a white metal (tin?). Powder not attacked by hot muriatic acid. According to E. Zschau, (letter addressed to G. J. Brush, dated Dresden, March 9, 1856,) the Urdite has the form of monazite, and is that species; he states that he has recognized the planes of Monazite, J, iz, -1i, -1, O, 22, and 22 rsee Min., p. 402.] The crystal is about an inch in length and breadth, and half an inch in thickness ; its weight 20°5 grammes. It occurs in feldspar (in granite intersecting gneiss), and - also enveloped in orthite. VANADINITE [p. 362, and Suppl. r].— According to Rammelsberg. (Monatsb. Preuss. Akad., March 1856, 158), the Vanadinite of Mt. Obir near Windisch-Kappel in Ca- rinthia, affords for the angle of pyramid (1:1 over terminal edge) 142° 30’. The same angle in mimetene, according to G. Rose, is 142° 7’; in pyromorphite, 142° 15’; in apatite, 142° 20’. Hence phosphoric and vanadic acids appear to be isomorphous. Vivianire [p. 415]—Analyses of earthy vivianite (Eisenlasur), by H. Struve (Bull. St. Petersb., Class. Phys.-math., xiv, 171-173): p #e Fe H 29°17 21°34 21°54 2'7'50 3 = 99°55 19°79 3311 13°75 26 10, Mg 7-37 == 10012 Found in crystals, perfectly colorless when first obtained, in the greensand, near Middletown, Newcastle Co., Delaware.—Prof. J. C. Booth in lit. Observed in human bones.—Nicklés, Am. J. Sci., [2], xxi, 402. VOIGTITE.—This new mineral, described by E. E. Schmid (Pogg. xcvii, 108), is from Ehrenberg, near IImenau. It resembles a mica, and is disseminated in granite, replacing true mica. The granite is partly graphic granite. In oblong scales, sel- dom over 1 millimeter thick, micaceous in structure; color leek green, and thin scales translucent, though often yellowish or brown and opaque from alteration ; lustre pearly; hardness somewhat above 2; sp. yr. 2°91. In a glass tube yields water, exfoliates, and becomes dark brown and metallic in lustre. BB. fuses easily to a black glass; and gives the reaction of iron. Attacked by cold muriatic acid, giving a yellow solution, and the insoluble part becomes after a few days colorless. Composition : . Si Al Fe Fe Mg Ca Na H 33°83 18°40 842 23°01 7154 2:04 0°96 9:87=99°07 giving the formula R* Si+ #8i-+ 3H, which is that of Biotite, excepting the water. The name Vozgtite is in honor of M. Voigt, director of the mines of Saxe Weimar. [A mineral of the same composition essentially, from Pressburg, Hungary, has been analyzed by von Hauer. See Wien. Sitzb,, xi, 609, 1858, and author’s Min., p. 295.] Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 263 VOLKNERITE [p. 134].—Analyses by Rammelsberg of the mineral from Snarum, called also Hydrotalcite (Pogg. xcvii, 296): 6 Xl Mg H 1. 261 S72 19°25 41:59-;= 100°%9 2. 6°95 38:18 17°78 £3199). == .100:00 3. 1°32 37°30 18°09 [37°38] =- 10000 4, 7°30 37:04 18°87 37:38 = 10059 The mineral was in bent or curving lamelle, which break into fibres. G.=2-091. Rammelsberg regards the carbonic acid as introduced subsequent to the formation of the mineral, and obtains the formula, Mg Al+4Mg H3=alumina 19°80, magnesia 38°56, water 4164100; or perhaps, Al H3+5Mg H?=alumina 1914, magnesia 37:27, water 43 59=100. Wirticuire (Kupferwismutherz) [p. 88, and Suppl. 1].—Analysis. by E. Tobler (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 207).—(1) part soluble in muriatic acid ; (2) part insoluble, ibid.; (3) the whole together : S Bi Cu Fe 1, Soluble part, 1600 49:12 30°70 1:64 = 97:46 2. Insoluble part, 1:26 0°53 0:86 1:27 == 3°96 3. Whole, 17:26 49°65 31°56 291 ==101°38 The results agree nearly with those of M. Schneider. The formula may be 2€u 8+ Bi? S*; but the sulphur is not sufficient for it. It corresponds better with the analyses to write it, 2€uS-+Bi? $2, or €uS+BiS; the iron being included with the €u. é The composition of this ore from Wittichen is discussed by R. Schneider, in Pogg. Ann., xcvii, 476. Wotrram [p. 351, and Suppl. 1, 1].—An imperfect crystal of wolfram from the west shore of “ Chief’s Island,” Lake Couchiching, Canada West, has been described by E. J. Chapman (Canadian Jour. [2], i, 308). It was found there in a boulder con- sisting of gneiss traversed by a vein of coarse granite, containing red orthoclase and some magnetite. XenotmeE [p. 401, and Suppl. 1, m/.—E. Zschau has described the associations of Xenotime in the granite of Hitterde, Norway. in the Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., 1855, 513. The minerals occurring with it are allanite, malacone (related to zircon), poly- crase, titanic iron; and very rarely gadolinite. The crystals of xenotime sometimes -form regular twins with malacone (this Journ., xx, 273), and also have a regu- larity of somposition with some crystals of orthite (allanite), titanic iron and poly- crase. For details, we refer to the paper. ¢ Me Analysis of the xenotime afforded, P 3074, Yttria 60°25, Ce 7-98, Si, Fe, trace. ZincitE [p. 110, and Suppl. m].—Occurs at Schneeberg as a pseudomorph after Blende.—Hartm. Berg. u. Hutt. 1858, in N. Jahrb., 1855, 841. Additional references. American localities— At Canton Mine, Ga., according to Prof. C. U. Shepard (Rep. 1856), chalcopyrite, harrisite, erubescite, hitchcockite, melaconite, galena (contain- ing 30 to 56 oz. silver to the ton), pyromorphite, plumbo-resinite “in thin seams and varnish-like coatings,” pyrites, marcasite, mispickel, blende, native copper, au- tomolite, staurotide, kyanite, ilmenite. Minerals accompanying the Gold of Australia. Quart. J. Geol. Soc., 1854, x, 303. On the minerals and pseudomorphs of Przibram, by E. Kleszczynski, Jahrb. k. k, geol. Reichs., 1855, 46. 264 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Arr. XXIII.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nichlés, dated Paris, July, 1856. Academy of Sciences.—Death of M. Binet—The Academy of Sciences has just lost its President for the year 1856—the geometer M. Binet, the pupil, associate, and friend of Laplace, and better acquainted with his ideas and works than any of his cotemporaries. He took an active part in the publication of the Mécanique Céleste, and wrote several memoirs on this subject which will always be consulted with profit. Besides this, he is the author of the Treatise on Eulerian Integrals, and had an inti- mate knowledge of the works of very many geometers both ancient and modern—knowledge which was always at the service of others, but now is lost to the world. From 1816 to 1830 he was Director of the Poly- technic School, when he was replaced by the distinguished physicist Dulong. He entered the Institute in 1843. He died on the 12th of May last at an advanced age. Agricultural Unwersal Hxhibition.—It is ten years since this kind of exhibition or fair began, and extended to the different regions of France; and now since the idea of Universal Exhibitions has been introduced, the Agricultural fairs are taking a more liberal range. This exhibition was not as well attended as was hoped, and France was but moderately repre- sented, there being hardly 150 French contributors. The animals ad- mitted were cattle, sheep etc., pigs, and fowls. There was also a horti- cultural exhibition of unusual beauty, where the Azaleas were combined in great perfection of taste, with Rhododendrons and Calceolarias. The ornamental trees were inferior to those of the Horticultural exhibition of last year. The department of Pisciculture was a new and interesting feature in this exhibition. There were several basins or reservoirs where the apparatus of Pisciculture of the College de France and the products of the establish- ment founded at Huningue (Haut-Rhin), were exhibited :—including sal- mon from the Danube and Rhine, the French salmon, trout, etc. etc., comprising various species which have been acclimated without difficulty. Two years since the experiment was begun towards stocking the artificial lake which the city of Paris has made in the Bois de Boulogne, which is supplied with water by means of a great steam engine; this lake, which has no communication with other waters, is now filled with trout and salmon of the finest kinds. Another department, adding to the interest of the exhibition, was that of Apiculture—or bees, and the manner of raising and treating them. A part of the exhibition was the same as that in the great Crystal Palace Exhibition. Fecula of the Horse-chestnut— Among the products in the Agricultural Exhibition, the different kinds of fecula were of prominent interest, and especially the fecula of the horse-chestnut (Aisculus hippocastanum). The exhibitor of it, M. Callias, has been honored with the silver medal, because of the simple and economical method of extraction which he has brought into use, permitting the fecula to be sold 25 to 30 per cent less than other related products. Astronomy. | 265 This fecula has been many times commended to attention since Bachelier in 1615 brought the tree from Constantinople, (it coming orig- inally from Southern Asia). Parmentier, Baumé and others sought suc- cessively to bring it into general use. But the mode of manufacture was not satisfactory, partly because of the presence of a resinous sub- stance which was separated with difficulty, and partly on account of the dark shell of the nut, which it was thought necessary to remove before extracting the fecula. In the new process, the nuts are grated with the bark on, and treated like the potato with its skin; the material is then washed in water as easily and as economically as the potato, so that the price is not above 20 centimes per kilogram, the cost of cultivation and manufacture being included. 20,000 kilograms of the fecula manufactured this year with the apparatus that is used tor the potato have settled the question of its im- portance. Astronomy—Among the changes at the Observatory at Paris, the es- tablishment of the “ Annals of the Observatory” is worthy of mention. The object of this periodical is to publish the results of observations of every kind connected with the Observatory, and also of such tables and reductions as are indispensable to give the results an actual scientific value. The completion of the tables to facilitate the discussion of the observations and aid in comparing with theory is making rapid progress. The first volume of the publication is just from the press. It contains the Report of M. Leverrier addressed to the French Government, and fol- lowing this, a statement of the system of organization now established. There are next, astronomical researches of various kinds, with the prin- cipal formulas for the calculation of functions. This work, whose numerous mathematical formulas render it of diffi-— cult execution, goes out almost without a fault from the ably conducted press of Mallet-Bachelier. 3 View of a part of the surface of the Moon.—M. Secchi, Astronomer at Rome, has sent to the Academy a photographic view of the part of the moon’s surface in which stands the crater named Copernicus. The scale is about gge!gqn- The photograph was not taken direct from the moon, but trom a design executed with great care on a somewhat larger scale, and having for its base a micrometric triangulation of the principal points of the area. The details were brought out with a lens magnifying 760 to 1000 times: the work, seemingly easy, was attended with great difficul- ties, on account of the change in the shadows with every hour, the moon’s bration and change of distance. To avoid all these difficulties a general sketch was first made under the most favorable light and view for marking out the crater, such as is ordinarily had when the moon is ten days old. After this, the details were separately made out, and then all were combined in their true relations, so as to make the complete sketch. The result thus reached was corrected by several examinations made from the first point of view. A professed draughtsman was occupied with the work during seven consecutive lunations, without counting the time em- ployed previously in practicing preparatory to the work. As the drawing was intended to represent the great central crater, the area around is not yet filled with all the details that may be introdnced. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856, 34 266 Correspondence of J. Nickles. After completing the design with every possible care, M. Secchi has had copies taken by photography, one of which he has sent to the Academy. The crater or annular-mountain, has two circuit walls. The outer, which is the lowest, has a diameter of about 48 seconds (one second corresponds to 1°820 meters); the inner, the true border of the crater, has a mean diam- eter of 38 seconds, and has a peak, somewhat elevated, on its western side. The inner area is 20 seconds across. The interior has a steep es- carpment around, and a triple circuit of broken rocks and a great number of large masses piled up at the foot of the escarpment, as if they had fallen from above. There are two great depressions in the north and south borders of the crater; and it is remarkable that in the direction of this line, outside, both north and south, there are some small craters. After having established the perfect resemblance which exists between the volcanic mountains of the environs of Rome and the lunar moun- tains,* (comparing with the chart of the Roman territory made by the French officers), M. Secchi adds, “The question whether volcanic action in the moon is actually extinct, can be answered only after there shall have been made a map of the moon’s surface for a given period with the utmost accuracy and on a large scale.” It is to help onward this project, that he has undertaken the work above described. Meteorological System of France—Notwithstanding the enemies of meteorological observations alluded to in a former communication, the system for France is now nearly established. The telegraph reports to the director of the Paris Observatory, M. Leverrier, the observations made at different points over the empire. All the stations are supplied with in- struments which have been compared with great care. The instrument which has undergone the most modification is the barometer. The ba- rometer of Fortin, which is the most perfect of all, has not been adopted, because it works well only in the most experienced hands, and the deter- mination of the atmospheric pressure with it is an experiment in physics of great delicacy rather than a direct: observation. The instrument used is very simple and gives the pressure of the air at a single reading, the corrections being contained in tables. Besides the corps of amateur meteorologists, a regular system of ob- servers under administrative direction was required, which should be perpetual and independent of the direct action of those constituting it. This is now realized, the stations being established within the telegraphic bureaus, the assistants in which have had a good education. The num- ber of stations is now 25, and they are situated in the principal basins of France. Each person in charge of a station is required to make three ob- servations a day, but may make more at his pleasure. These observa- ations are registered in a book kept at the station; and at 7 or 8 o'clock in the morning they are reported by the telegraph according to a con- certed formula, to the Paris Observatory, where they are recorded on spe- cial registers, to be tabulated and published. * The more thoroughly the volcanic mountains of the moon are studied, the more completely do they sustain the resemblance to the great boiling lava craters like Kilauea of the Hawaian Islands, as pointed out by the writer in an article on the Volcanoes of the Moon, in this Journal, volume ii, 2nd Series, page 335, 1846.— a, D.D. Inundations.— Electricity. 267 This system has already worked for a month with entire regularity ; and when it shall have been firmly established and have received the sanction of time, M. Leverrier will undertake to extend the system to the neigh- boring countries. The concurrence of Belgium is promised, and we hope for that of England. Indeed, according to a recent statement at the Ob- servatory, the brother of the Austrian emperor and the Royal Prince of Sweden have promised to contribute all in their power to promote the ex- tension both of the political union and meteorological union of France to Austria and Sweden. But it is well known what such promises are worth. Inundations.—Since the calamity from floods which has befallen a part of France, many notes and memoirs have been published, both with ref- erence to preventing such catastrophes in the future, and the discovery of the cause. On the latter point there are two opinions, some attributing the rain to hot vapors brought with the winds of Africa, others to the Gulf stream descending very low in the ocean at this time and saturating the air with moisture. Both theories consider the winds as carried against the Alps, there to precipitate their moisture in the state of rain; and it is in accordance with this view that the part of Germany beyond the Alps to the south and east has suffered from drought. To these meteorological causes, supposing one or both real, we may add the clearing away of forests, the opening of canals, and the means used to facilitate the flow of waters, whence, a drop of water makes a quicker passage to the rivers and thence to the sea, than in the ancient times of uncultivated France. The rivers consequently enlarge suddenly beyond measure and commit ravages from which France periodically suffers. It seems the duty of science then to combat the evils due partly to the pro- gress of science. The organization of a system of meteorological ob- servations is one step towards this end. The inspection of the pluviome-— ter may enable us to foresee by several days the increase of a river, like that at Lyons; and if placed about the heights, the telegraph may an- nounce six days in advance, a flood on the Saone, and enable the people to put the rivers in a state to carry off the excess of water and prevent much of the evil. MM. Pouillet, Regnault and others will hardly deny ‘after this the utility of meteorological observations. Electricity-— Substitute for the copper wire in the construction of He- lices.—The cost of helices of fine wire, and the limit of thickness to which the fine wire can be covered with silk for insulation, are two impedi- ments which M. Bonelli has sought to set aside by very simple means. He takes a band of paper of the height of the helix of an electro-mag- net, or of the corresponding part of a galvanometer; this band carries parallel to its edge, metallic lines a a’, 6 6’, etc., passing from one extrem- ity to the other; these lines, placed in the circuit, will give passage to the current, while they are also insulated from one another by the paper which separates them; so that the current will pass uninterruptedly provided the lines of metal are unbroken. The number of these lines which may be put on a band of paper is almost indefinite. Leaving their extremities free, the current may be made to pass, either along the lines united, or in all of them at the same time and in the same direction. | 268 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Liffects with Ruhmkorff’s Apparatus of Induction—M. Léon Foucault has been engaged for some time in studying the effects of the apparatus of Ruhmkorff. In place of using only a single apparatus, he operates with four, which are united so as to work together by means of a peculiar interruptor,—a mercury interruptor. In the open air, four machines of ordinary dimensions, under the action of ten couples of a Bunsen’s large battery, give a spark at a distance of seven centimeters (nearly three inches). The addition of a condenser in which the armature acts on a surface of 30 to 50 centimeters. renders the spark very bright, and reduces the ex- plosive distance to 18 millimeters, The series of discharges, which fol- low one another with rapidity, give to the point where the operation is going on, a light like that of an ordinary lamp. Although the bright- ness from such a source does not appear excessive, it acts on the organs of sight, when observed directly, like the light from the carbon of the galvanic circuit, producing a painful sensation which may continue for hours afterward. The interposition of glass of uranium prevents or di- minishes very much this effect, which appears to show that it is due to the very refrangible and in part invisible rays which constitute in large proportion the electric light. The discharge of the four instruments traverses easily a tube exhausted by an air pump two metres long; a column of light is developed from one end to the other and presents throughout its extent a kind of stratifi- cation, such as has been noticed in the interior of the electric egg. Electric Chronometers.—The ingenious artist, M. Bréguet, son of the skillful mechanician who invented the Bréguet Thermometer, etc., has de- voted himself to the construction of chronometers in connection with the Electric Telegraph. During his recent stay at Paris, he has placed a chronometer of great simplicity in a gas lamp. It consists of a dial armed with two needles moved by electricity, which mark the hours and minutes. The whole mechanism consists of three wheels, a pinion, an escapement, and a double rachet, with a means of reversing the current: two wires pass from the lamp to a regulating clock situated in the apartment of M. Bréguet. This inventor proposes to divide Paris into 12 electric districts, and place in each mayoralty a regulator which shall distribute time throughout the district both to the public lamps and private houses. Gas and Steam Manometer Alarm.—The same artist has made another application of electricity. He has constructed an apparatus for informing the engineer either of gas or steam apparatus, by the stroke of a bell, that the pressure is above or below what is required. It is accomplished in a very simple manner. At the extremities of the arc which the nee- dle of the manometer passes over, there are put two metallic points which limit its movement in either direction; the contact of the needle with these metallic points is made to close a circuit proceeding from a small battery, and this puts the bell in play. On a Cause of Atmospheric Electrietty—There exists between the liy- ing plant and the soil supporting it an electric current, which always moves in the same direction, that is, the soil is constantly positive, the plant continually negative. This fact, was first observed by M. Becquerel, Sr., and for several years it has been pointed out by him as one of the Bibliography. 269 causes of atmospheric eleetricity. On repeating the experiments a year since, he was struck with the anomalies presented in operating on the bank of a stream, in the water, and also at a certain distance from the plant, and was thus led to study the effects under these circumstances. These effects are complex and change their direction and intensity with the chemical composition of the water and the soil. In each case the re- sults depend on heterogeneity between the water and the soil; alkaline waters are negative, and acid waters positive; it follows therefore, that sometimes the effects are null, as happens on the waters of a river and along the sandy banks washed by the floods. Bibliography.—Annales de? Observatoire de Paris publiées, par U. J. Le Verrier. Vol. I, in large 4to, of 420 pages, with a plate. Paris; Mallet-Bachelier. Price 28 francs—We have remarked on this work un- der the head of Astronomy. GQuvres de Fr. Araco.—Wotices Scientifiques. Vol. IL. Paris: Gide et Baudry.—This volume contains, Ist, A historical notice of the Steam Engine; 2d, a Report on Railroads, historical in character, made to the Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1836; 3d, A Report on the introduction of the Electric Telegraph into France, a report combatted at the time by “les obscurantistes” on the ground that the electric telegraph was a chi- mera; 4th, a Report on limestone, mortars, hydraulic cements, native and artificial puzzolanas; 5th, A series of remarkable articles under the title of Navigation, treating of different maritime questions. An announce- ment of the subjects in this volume is sufficient to exhibit its importance. Le Materiel Agricole, ou Description et Hxamen des Instruments et des Machines usités en Agriculture, par A. Jourpisr.—Paris: Hachette. 1 volume in 12 mo, containing in a concise and elegant form accounts of the principal agricultural operations followed in France. Notions d’ Hygiene pratique, par le Dr. IstoorE Bourpon.—1 volume in 16 mo. of 380 pages, treating fully of the general subject of Hygiene. Theorie de Logarithmes par TarnieR, Doctor és Sciences mathemat- iques.—A pamphlet of 92 pages in 8vo. Paris: Hachette. Elements de Geographie, par CortaMBERT. 1 volumein 8vo. Paris: Hachette-—The author is a Professor of Geography of high reputation with the Parisian public, and his works are in good demand. _ Precis d’ Histoire Naturelle, par M. Devarosss. ‘7th edition in 1 vol- ume of 688 pages 12 mo.—This book is in the hands of all the students and is a convenient introduction to the natural sciences. Its author, M. Delafosse, is moreover Professor of Mineralogy in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, where he has given instruction for nearly twenty years. Les applications nouvelles de la Science a Industrie et aux Arts, en 1855, par L. Fieuter, M.D., Doctor és Science, Redacteur du Bulletin Scientifique de la presse. 1 volume of 788 pages in 12 mo.—This small volume is one of the results of the “ Universal Exposition” at Paris. It has been well prepared, and has in view an exhibition of the principal applications of science relating to the Steam engine, Steam vessels, Elec- tromotors, Clocks, Electricity and Railroads, Photography, Photographic engraving, Galvanoplasty, Stearic candles, Electric illumination, Heating by gas, Aluininium, ete. etc. 270 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Some Huperiments in Llectro-physiology ; by Prof. Marreucct, in a letter to Dr Faraday, dated May 1, 1856, (Phil. Mag. [4], xi, 461.)— I think I have already told you that for some time past I have been making experiments in electro-physiology. Allow me now to communi- cate to you the results of my work. I have lately succeeded in demonstrating and measuring the phenome- non which I have called muscular respiration. This respiration, which consists in the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid and azote by living muscles, and of which I have determined the princi- pal conditions and intensity compared with that of the general respiration of an animal, has been studied particularly on muscles in contraction. I have proved that this respiration increases considerably in the act of con- traction, and have measured this increase. A muscle which contracts, absorbs, while in contraction, a much greater quantity of oxygen, and exhales a much greater quantity of carbonic acid and azote, than does the same muscle in a state of repose. A part of the carbonic acid exhales in the air, the muscle imbibes the other part, which puts a stop to successive respiration and produces asphyzy of the muscle. Thus a muscle soon ceases to contract under the influence of an electro- magnetic machine when it is enclosed in a small space of air; this cessa- tion takes place after alonger interval of time if the muscle is in the open air, and much more slowly still if there be a solution of potash at the bottom of the recipient in which the muscle is suspended. Muscles which have been kept long in vacuum or in hydrogen are nevertheless capable, though in a less degree, of exhaling carbonic acid while in contraction ; this proves clearly that the oxygen which furnishes the carbonic acid ex- ists in the muscle in a state of combination. According to the theories of Joule, Thomson, &c., the chemical action which is transformed, or which gives rise to heat, is also represented by a certain quantity of vzs viva, or by an equivalent of mechanical work. I have therefore been able to measure the theoretical work due to the oxygen consumed, taking the numbers which I had found for muscular respiration during contraction, and in consequence the quantity of heat developed by this chemical ac- tion, and finally this theoretical work according to the dynamical equiva- lent of heat. I have compared this number with that which expresses the real work which is obtained by measuring the weight which a muscle in contraction can raise to a certain height, and the number of contrac- tions which a muscle can perform in a given time. It results from this comparison, that the first number is somewhat greater than the second, and the heat developed by contraction ought to be admitted among the causes of this slight difference: these two numbers are therefore sufii- ciently in accordance with each other. I have completed these researches by some new studies on induced contrac- tion, that is to say, on the phenomenon of the irritation of a nerve in con- tact with a muscle in contraction. A great number of experiments lately Chemistry and Physics. 271 made on the discharge of the torpedo, and on the analogy between this discharge and muscular contraction, have led me to establish the existence of an electrical discharge in the act of muscular contraction. The gen- eral conclusion to be drawn from: these researches is, therefore, that the chemical action which accompanies muscular contraction develops in liv- ing bodies, as in the pile or in a steam-engine, heat, electricity, and vis viva, according to the same mechanical laws. Allow me to describe to you briefly the only one of these experiments which can be repeated in a lecture, and which proves the principal fact of these researches, although it is limited to prove that muscles in contrac- tion develop a greater quantity of carbonic acid than those in repose. Take two wide-mouthed glass phials of equal size, 100 or 120 cub. cen- tims.; pour 10 cub. centims. of lime-water (eau de chaux) into each of these phials. Prepare ten frogs in the manner of Galvani, that is, redu- cing them to a piece of spinal marrow, thighs and legs without the claws, which are cut in order to avoid contact with the liquid in the phials. The cork of one of these phials is provided with five hooks, either of cop- per or iron, on which five of the prepared frogs are fixed. Through the cork of the other phial are passed two iron wires, bent horizontally in the interior of the phial; the other five frogs are fixed by the spinal marrow to these wires. ‘This preparation must be accomplished as rapidly as pos- sible, and both the phials be ready at the same instant, and great care taken to avoid the contact of the frogs with the sides of the phials or the liquid. When all is in readiness, with a pile of two or three elements of Grove, and with an electro-magnetic machine such as is employed for medical purposes, the five frogs suspended on the two iron wires are made to contract. After the lapse of five or six minutes, during which time the passage of the current has been interrupted at intervals in order to keep up the force of the contractions, agitate gently the liquid, withdraw the frogs, close rapidly the phials, and agitate the liquid again. You will then see that the lime-water contained in the phial in which the frogs were contracted is much whiter and more turbid than the same liquid contained in the other phial in which the frogs were left in repose. It is almost superfluous to add, that I made the complete analysis of the air in contact with the frogs according to the methods generally employed. 2. Selentwm.—Crystalline form according to Mitscherlich (J. f. pr. ~ Chem. Ixvi, 257) is monoclinic. J: [= 64° 56’, 72:72 (planes beveling front edge) = 103° 40’, C'(or O: w)= 104° 6’, O: 47 (clinodome)= 142° 54’, O0:1=124° 48’, O:-1=112° 36’. 3. Lodine——Crystalline form (Mitscherlich, J. f. pr. Chem. Ixvi, 265) trimetric ; 2: = 112° 48’, O:1=112°4’, 0: 14=126° 132’, O: i= Vib? 57’, 1i.: 1% (top) 72° 27’, 12: 17 (top) = 51° 54’. II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1. Meteorte [ron of Thuringia —Description and analysis by W. Eber- hard, (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 286.)—Found on the 18th of October, 1854, near Tabarz, near the foot of the Inselbergs, not far from Gotha, and said to be still hot when picked up, though this is doubted. The ‘mass is a small one, and is oxydized over the surface. It resembles much 272 Scientific Intelligence. that of Bohumilitz. In the outer crust, there are pieces of schreibersite and protosulphuret of iron. The Widmannstadtian figures are large. G.=7:'737. Composition of this and the Bohumilitz irons: Fe Ni Co Ph _ Schreibersite 4 92°757 5693 0-791 0°862 0°277 = 100°380 | 2. Bohumilitz, 92173 5667 0°235 —— 1625 = 100, Berzelius. 2. Meteorie Iron of Cape of Good Hope-—Analyses by Uricoechea and Boécking (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 246) :— Fe Ni Co Ph Cu, Zn,S 1. Uricoechea, 81°20 15:09 256 0:09 trace Schreibersite; 0:95—99-89 2. Bocking, 81:30 1523 201 088 _ trace ry 0:88 =99-50 3. Meteoric Stone of Mezo-Madaras in Siebenburg.—Analysis by F. Wohler (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 251) :—Native iron 18°10, nickel 1°45, cobalt 0°05, graphite 0°25, magnesia 23°83, Fe 4-61, Mn 0:28, Al 3:15, Ca 1°80, Na 2°34, K 0°50, sulphur, phosphorus, and oxyd of chrome undetermined, silica 43°64—=100. Separating 19°6 p.c. of nickeliferous iron, the rest was subjected to muriatic acid. The insoluble part and soluble part gave : Si Al Mg Fe Ga Na K Graphite 1. Insoluble 18502 0:564 4-660 4-643 0-929 0:585 0-347 0:250=30-480 { * UIn 100 parts, 60°70 © 1:85 15°29 15-25 3:05 1-91" 113" 082 = 100 2. Soluble 26°336 2°586 19:170 —— 0:870 1:755 0°153=50-920 ’ > In 100 parts, 51:34 508 37:64 —— 1:70 344 0:30 =100 The author concludes that the stone consists of olivine, augite, labrador- ite, with nickeliferous iron, sulphuret of iron, graphite, and a small pro- portion of chromic iron. . The meteorite fell on the 4th of September, 1852. 4. On the Volcanoes of Southern Italy ; by M. C. St. Cuatrre DEVILLE (L’Institut, No. 1173).—M. Deville has prepared a report on his two journeys to the volcanic region of southern Italy. In connection with MM. Leblane and Lewy, he has analyzed the gases and specimens col- lected by him, and the following are some of the results. The gas of the fumaroles which he calls dry fumaroles, and of those that usually afford alkaline anhydrous chlorids with some sulphates, is pure air deprived of a very small proportion of oxygen. The gas analyzed was collected at Vesuvius in May, June, September and October, 1855. The gas collected in September, 1855, from one of the fumaroles of the erater over the small central plain, from which vapor of water with sul- phur and sulphuretted hydrogen were issuing, afforded, one specimen, 3°51 p. c. of carbonic acid; another 9:26 p.c. The rest was pure atmos- pheric air, or air deprived of its oxygen. Two specimens of gas collected on the 5th and 22nd of October from the Lake Naftia in Sicily gave for the first, Oxygen 17°36, nitrogen 82°64 ; the second, oxygen 15°77, nitrogen 79:23, carbonic acid 5:00, showing the variations in the gaseous emanations. The white mineral of the Vesuvian lava of recent eruptions is probably leucite, it having the specific gravity 2°48, and the oxygen ratio for the bases and silica 3:82. But it differs from the leucite of Somma in containing more potash, the oxygen ratio of the soda and potash being 1: 2-09 in this mineral from the lava of 1855, and in the Somma (Fossa Grande) leucite 1:21. Moreover in the crystals from the lava of 1847, as he learns from M. Damour, this ratio is 1 : 1°67. Mineralogy and Geology. Py ee 5. On the Isthmus of Suez; by M. Renavp, (L’Institut, No. 1173 )— The greatest elevation of the isthmus of Suez above the Mediterranean is 16 meters, and this extends along only for a few miles. Between this higher part and the Gulf of Suez on the Red Sea, there are two depres- sions, one, the basin of the Bitter Waters, dry; the other, called Lake Timsah, oceupied with water which when flooded flows towards the Nile along the Wady Toumilah. The height of land between these two ba- sins is 11 meters above low tide in the Mediterranean; and the height between Lake Timsah and the Gulf of Peluse is but 9 meters. The dis- tance across the isthmus in a straight line from the Gulf of Suez to the Gulf of Peluse is 113 kilometers (70 miles). It is a sandy and nearly barren region, to the north more gravelly. The southern half is com- pletely sterile; the northern produces the vegetation peculiar to the des- erts, on which the camels feed. On the borders of Lake Tismah, over the dry parts of its bed, and on the channel leading to Wady Toumilah, tamarinds grow in abundance. ‘The sands of the isthmus are fixed, that is, not movable, and there are therefore no dunes. In some places there are minute disseminated crystals of gypsum, and also deposits of the same 6 to 15 inches thick; in other places concretions of carbonate of lime occur over the surface of the sand, and on some sand hills, one or two beds of limestone having the appearance of quartz. In the north part of the basin where it was deepest, there is a deposit of salt 74 meters thick, struck in sounding No. 10; and in sounding No. 9, salt was found covered by a bed of gypsum in fine needle erystallizations. In the region between the Bitter lake basin and the Red Sea, there were encountered below the sand, compact clay, sandy clay, sand and gravel, laminated clay, &c. In the second'sounding, a band of calcareous rock was found resting on one of sand. A marly clay was found in a third sounding. But in general, the clays hardly effervesced at all with acids. Beyond the Bitter lake basin there were only sands, excepting in sounding 19, a band of marl. In the basin of the Bitter lake, shells occur like those of the Red Sea, -among which a species of Mactra is very common. It is probable that these shells have not lived in the waters since the basin was shut off from the tides of the Red Sea, since the hot climate, after such a separation, would soon concentrate the waters by evaporation and so destrov all liv- ing species. It is true that in the time of Strabo and Herodotus the basin contained water: but it was fresh water which was brought there by the canal joining the Nile and Red Sea. It is a controverted question whether the lakes were yet a part of the Red Sea when the Jews under Moses left Egypt. The affirmative accords best with the sacred text; but then, the elevation of Suez must have taken place since that event. The banks ot the sea as well as the soil of the isthmus show no evi- dence of marked change since the most remote periods. The sand and shells of the present beach look very different from those of the intenor, and contain many shells not found in the latter. These seashore sands have a width nowhere exceeding 100 meters. There is still more evidence on the Gulf of Peluse that there has been no change of level since the earliest historical period. SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856, 35 a ~~ Scientific Intelligence. 6. On the Mines of Mineral Coal in Peru; by M. E. pp Rrvero.*—The works published on Peru scarcely make any mention of the Peruvian Coal Mines. I propose to supply this deficiency of information, at least in part, by some account of the beds which I have seen in the Cordillera, some of which I have myselt discovered. Along the Coast district, although coal occurs in some places, it has not been found in mines of workable value. This remark applies to the isl- and of San Lorenzo near Callao, and the district of Tumbes. Still, we believe that a careful survey may yet bring to light beds of value which will well repay the expense of exploration, since coal is so essential to industry, and especially to the Peruvian steamers, which are now com- pelled to import it from England at great expense. The discovery of the coal mines of Peru dates from the introduction of steam engines which were established by the Company of Abadia in 1816 in the Cerro de Pasco, department of Junin. The first bed was discovered by Hudille in the hill called Rancas, two leagues from Cerro. At first it was not known what to do with the coal; for charcoal and peat were employed in their kitchens and forges, and for the distillation of the silver amalgam. But afterwards, on its coming into use for engines, it was gradually introduced for domestic purposes, the district affording little wood ; and now there is only a single house in which a fire-place is constructed for burning charcoal. The climate of the Cerro del Pasco,’ a place situated 4,352 meters above the sea, is consequently more sup- portable. The coal beds of Rancas have a north and south direction and a dip to the west. They overlie shales and sandstones and are covered by the same rocks. There are many flexures and faults, as in the coal regions of Belgium and elsewhere. The principal bed is quite large; the coal is ex- cellent, giving much flame and little residue, and serving well in forges; its structure is not as schistose as usual. Other beds have since been discovered. Two leagues from Cerro, in the peak of Colquyilca, there are three coal beds of moderate thickness and good quality. At the Quebrada of Fulluranca, on the road from Huanuco, in the peaks of Puelles, Anaspuquio and Siricancha, near the property belonging to Don Gaspar Sola, there are considerable beds which are used for heating houses and also for the pedla of silver. They occur between sandstone and a limestone which contains galena. Not far dis- tant, I have found a greenish fluor associated with the galena. In the direction of the silver mine of Vinchos, (a mine worked exten- sively and with great profit), on the ascent of the peak of Pargas, at a place called Curaopuero, there is a coal bed 15 varas (41-7 feet) thick. The coal is but little bituminous, and it burns easily, leaving a white slaty residue. The mine belongs to MM. Sanchez and Don Ricardo Joch. Four leagues from this point, to the right, stands the peak of Picti- chaca (a word signifying bridge.) at the foot of which there are the lakes of Geguey and Boliche. It contains the silver mines of Rosario, belong- ing to the lands of Jarria, and other mines which it is said have been ex- plored by a Portuguese company. ; * Ann. des Mines, [5], vii, 1855, p. 459. Mineralogy and Geology. | 275 On the descent of the Quebrada de Vinchos, in the peak of Churca, there is a bed of coal which I discovered. I believe it to be of good quality, although of little thickness. Near the village of Pallanchaca, - there is an important bed which is yet to be explored. The extensive silver mine of Huallanca has near it beds of mineral coal, 4 to 5 varas thick, and of excellent quality; and it is probable that manufactories and founderies will consequently be established. The height of Huallanca above the sea level is 3.527 meters. Near the quick- silver mine of Chonta, ata height of 4,465 meters, there are beds of coal, hitherto explored only for heating. They rest on sandstone and al- ternate with conglomerate and iron pyrites. Coal is also found in the profound Quebrada of Queropalca, a region very rich in metals, especially lead; also in Chavin de Guanta, celebra- ted for its famous castles of the ancient Incas. Near the mine of Oyon, Province of Cajatambo, several beds of superior quality have been ex- plored, covering many leagues. The old mine of antimonial sulphuret of silver, lying upon magnesian carbonate of lime, and whose explor- ation has lately been undertaken by an American (U.S.) company, has not responded to their expectations. The village of Oyon is 3,621 me- ters above the sea level. In the hill of Za Vinda, on the road from Obragillo to Cerro de Pasco, at an elevation of 4,613 meters, I have observed coal in horizontal beds between sandstone and shale, containing fossil shells which were too im- perfect to make out the species. There is coal also in the villages of Marcapopacocha, Alpamarca, Pallanea, ete. Twelve leagues from Cerro, there is the coal bed of Cudlutago, extend- ig on both sides of the Quebrada of the village of Huallay enclosed by the elevations of Andacancha and Anascacha; the bases of these eleva- tions are of sandstone, while the summits consist of white trachyte con- taining bits of greyish perlite and white transparent quartz. Before ar- riving at Huallay, ores of silver and mineral coal are met with on the road. Coal also occurs in the peak of Chicacha, which contains also mines of silver. The base of the mountain is remarkable for a saliferous marl, the source of several salt springs or streams. In the peak of Aranvaldpan, there are several other mines of good coal, which were opened by the Company of Abadia for the smelting of argentiferous galena. There is another near the small lake of Pi- chae, explored by M. Alexander Verastegui, but of inferior quality. Near Huaypacha, there is a bed of lignite. At Chapalea, near Puipuy, coal exists in a bed of considerable extent; also of superior quality and extent near Huayay. Coal is also said to occur in the road from Farma to Jauja, and at the Quicksilver mine of Huancavelica. Some years since, coal beds were discovered at the Quebrada of Murco, in the department of Arequipa. This Quebrada, the commencement of the Valley of Siguas, takes its origin at the foot of the high and majestic Nevado de Sallaly, whose summit is covered with perpetual snow and will never be scaled by man. I think that the height is greater than that of the voleano of Arequipa, which is 6,600 meters. All travelers who pass the foot towards Lampa or Puno, suffer from extreme cold and dizzi- ness from the rarity of the atmosphere, causes which in some seasons 276 Scientific Intelligence. have occasioned the death of the animals themselves. The Quebrada of Murco trends from the northwest to the southeast, and consists, as far as in view, of sandstone and black schist. Fifty ranchos (huts of straw or stone) are occupied by the natives in charge of their herds, and this is all the population. They cultivate Indian corn, poor peaches, together with the Chilea (Eupatoria resinosa) a shrub that grows abundantly and which dug into the ground makes an excellent fertilizer. At four to six cua- dras from these ranchos, on the banks of a stream which is impassable in the rainy season, there are some beds of coal in the slate, which dip to the north, the strike east-southeast and west-northwest. They are ex- plored at the surface for a breadth of some varas, and are associated with ironstone and pyrites. I have observed other beds near, which appear to be of better quality. One explored under the direction of M. Uria, has a breadth of more than a yard, and the coal has been tried in the Pa- cific steamers. It is carried to Arequipa, 15 to 16 leagues, for the forges there in operation. I believe that it will soon be employed in the valleys of Siguas and Vitor for the distillation of wine. In the valley of Mages, near the property of Querulpa, I have found in a limestone a small and nearly horizontal bed of coal which I have left to Manuel Reyes to explore. In the Quebrada of the warm springs of Yura, nine leagues north of Arequipa, I found, in 1827, coal in a blackish schist like that of Compuerta, on the road from that village to Puno. There are said to be other beds at Esquino, on the route from Moquega, and at Morro on the way from Sama. From the nature of the beds, coal may yet be found near Arica. There are still other places in La Costa or the Coast Region, where it may be found. Thus Peru is not destitute of beds of mineral coal. But owing to the great distances and the want of roads, the industrial establishments of the coast are still compelled to provide themselves from foreign dealers at great expense, paying 20 to 25 dollars a ton. © 1, Waters of Lake Ooroomiah ; by Henry Wirt, (Phil. Mag. [4], xi, 257 )—The waters of Lake Ooroomiah examined, were collected by Mr. W. K. Loftus. The lake, he says, is “about 82 miles in length and 24 wide, its height being 4100 feet above the level of the sea. The wa- ter is of a deep azure color, but there is something exceedingly unnatural in its heavy stillness and want of life. Small fragments of Fuci, saturated with salt, and thrown ashore, form a ndge at the margin of the lake, and emit such a noxious effluvium under a hot sun as to produce nausea at the stomach. The sulphuretted hydrogen generated from the lake itself without doubt adds to this sensation. The water is intensely salt, and evaporates so rapidly, that a man, who swam in to bring me a bottle of the water for analysis, on coming out was covered with particles of salt, and looked as white and ludicrous as though he had been thrown into a flour tub.” The sample was taken from the lake at Guverjin Kalah, on the north-western shore, on the’14th of August, 1852, the temperature of the water at the time being 78° F. at 11 a. . As ] received it (the cork having been well secured by a coating of wax), the water still retained a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, and was moreover supersaturated with carbonic acid, which it evolved on being Mineralogy and Geology. Q7F shaken or gently heated. It was evidently a very strong brine, for it tasted intensely of common salt, and left on every place on which a drop evapo- rated spontaneously a large quantity of saline residue. On leaving a portion of it for a few hours in a warm laboratory in an open dish, large cubical crystals, exhibiting the peculiar step-like cavernous structure of common salt, separated in abundance. Its specific gravity was 1:18812, and on evaporation it gave a total quantity of solid residue arnounting to 21856°5 grains in the gallon. In the imperial gallon (of 70,000 grains) there were present 10470°439 grains of chlorine, corresponding to 17254:27 grains of common salt; the remainder of the saline matter, amounting to 4602:23 grains, con- sisted chiefly of alkaline carbonates, but also contained small quantities of the sulphates and carbonates of lime and magnesia; the smallnes of the quantity of water in my possession prevented the possibility of deter- mining their actual amount. To indicate the position of the Lake of Ooroomiah among natural brines, I append a table showing the specific gravities, total quantities of solid residue, and of common salt, in the gallon of several of the mineral springs of Harrogate (analysed by my friend Mr. Northcote and myself { Total | Common Specific residue in]salt in the : gravity. the gallon,| gallon Authority. in grains, jin grains. Name of water. Seas - The Mediterranean....| .... 28701... | UP iat, 1839." do. - iets 2851 | 1905 |Laurens, 1839.+ lye Moser hepa A se =e ae R. Schlagintweit, Busta Chapnel.,.¢e.s| is.<>» | 2660 | ..... |Pfaff. do. wee- | 2468 | 1890 |Schweitzer, 1839. German Ocean at the Frith of Forth.... Baltic Sea at Kiel in OTA cackit fake Halstelth <0. 90 «ss ht Ue one oe POUARI Cepia bin, oe odin» s 1027 ».-- |... {A.H. and R. Schlagintweit. Red Sea’. as. as SA etUOE OL | csta ce’ lt rele s 3 edo. Brines :— Harrogate Springs. 1, Old Sulphur well.../1:01113} 1096 866 |Hofmann, 1854.§ 2. Montpelier strong ) |,. sulphur well... 1:01045| 966 808 do. 8. Hospital strong ue ane 100515| 437 | 369 do. Dead Seas - 2 ......5.. POY RDO ee eae Marcet. | Droitwitch brine ..... 11893 | 20157 {19392 |A. B. Northcote, 1855.47 Stoke brine .........{/1°2044 | 22256 |21492 do. Lake of Ooroomiah ....11:11812° 21856 {17254 'H. M. Witt, 1856. | * Pfafi, Schwartze’s Allgemeine wnd specielle Heilquellenlehre. Leipsic, 1839. + Laurens and Schweitzer, Phil. Mag., [3], vol. xv, p. 51. ¢ Phil. Mag. for 1855, vol. ix, p. 396, “On the Temperature and Density of the Seas between Southampton and Bombay.” § Hofmann, Quart. Journ. of Chem. Soc., vol. vii, p. 161. | Marcet, Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xx, p. 25. @ Northcote, Phil. Mag. Jan. 1855. 278 Scientific Intelligence. for, and under the direction of, Dr. Hofmann), as well as of other brine- springs, and the waters of certain seas. The extreme saltness of this and the neighboring lakes would appear to arise from the separation, at some remote period, of these masses of salt water from the main ocean, together with the great Caspian and Aral lakes; and the continued evaporation by constantly diminishing their volume (as has been proved by observations on the spot) has caused them ultimately to become, as they are, perfectly saturated brines: and Mr. Loftus states that there are other lakes in the neighborhood which have completely dried up. leaving nothing but a great bed of salt. 8. On the Koh-i-Noor Diamond, (from the Proceedings of the Ashmo- lean Society, Feb. 12, 1855).—The Secretary (M. Maskelyne) made a communication on the history of the Koh-i-Noor diamond. After re-— counting the fabulous and traditionary accounts of it existing still in In- dia, whereby its antiqnity was carried back to the Indian hero Bikram- aditya, 56 B.C., and even to the fabled age of Krishna, he drew attention to the account of a large diamond described by Baber, the founder of the Mogul dynasty, in his memoirs, the authenticity of which is unquestiona- ble. He mentions it as a part of the spoil taken by his son, Himaytin at Agra, after that battle of Paniput, in which Ibrahim Lodi fell, and with him his ally or tributary the Rajah of Gwalior Bikramajit, custodian of the fortress of Agra. It is reported by Baber to have come into the Delhi treasury from the conquest of Malwa by Ala-ed-deen in 1304. Baber gives its weight as about 8 mishkals. In another passage he es- timates the mishkal at 40 ratis, which would make its weight 320 ratis. It is singular that Tavernier describes a diamond which he saw in 1665 among the crown jewels of Aurungzebe, as having exactly this weight, or rather as weighing 3194 ratis. To this diamond, however, he assigns an- other history, making it identical with a huge diamond said to have been given by Meer Jumla, the King of Golconda’s Minister, to purchase the good will of Shah Jehaun, preparatory to his exchanging into his service from one in which it was no longer safe for him to remain. This dia- mond is alluded to by Bernier also, and seems to have had a real exist- ence, though Tavernier’s account of its cutting admits to its having been greatly injured, and possibly leads to the inference that it was ruined in the process. In order to make out which of these two historic diamonds is the Koh-i-noor, Mr. Maskelyne went minutely into Tavernier’s descrip- tion, comparing it with his drawing of it, and with his own language in another place. He showed that Tavernier’s accounts of the exhibition to him of the jewels of Aurungzebe differed slightly in themselves, and en- tirely from his drawing of the diamond; but that the former, on the whole, represented with singular fidelity the original appearance of the diamond now in England, supposing it to be mounted in such a naanner as to conceal the lower part of it. It seemed probable, however, from another reason, that the diamond Tavernier saw was not the one he im- agined it to be, and of which he had doubtless heard descriptions in the mines of Golconda, but the diamond of Baber. Aurungzebe held his father a state prisoner. Shah Jehaun had been asked by his unfilial con- queror to give him some of the splendid jewels which he retained in his captivity ; at first, indignantly refusing, Shah Jehaun threatened to de- Mineralogy and Geology. 279 stroy them; but afterwards,—“ some time before his death”—he surren- dered some of them, but kept many. After his death these were given to Aurungzebe by his sister Jehanira. Would Shah Jehaun have given to Aurungzebe or would he have retained a diamond, (supposing it to have escaped destruction, in the cutting,) which had been the prie of his in- terference with the affairs of Golconda, and had been perhaps the ulti- mate cause of his son’s triumph over him? Far more probably would he have given him the true Mogul diamond, the proudest jewel of the con- quests of his great ancestor, and that to which Aurungzebe stood indefea- sibly, though by fratricide truly Indian, the unnatural heir. Tavernier saw the jewels of Aurungzebe on Nov. 3, 1665. Shah Jehaun died in February, 1666. Tavernier saw but one very large diamond. The dates agree with the supposition; and there are not likely to have been two diamonds, one of 320, the other of 3194 ratis. It is very difficult to determine the weight of the rati. It is variable im place and time, and, in many places is a conventional weight. The rati is the Abris precatorius or rutka, a little red seed with a black tip to it, which was, like our barleycorn, a standard of weight over all India, which however varied from about 1:86 of a grain up to 2°25 grains; the coins of Akbar leading to the inference of its weight being nearly 1:9375 of a grain. It is obviously useless to multiply so small a number by 120, for we could expect no accurate result, owing to the exaggeration of the error arising from the multiplication of even the smallest mistake in the true weight of the rati in Baber’s or Tavernier’s time. But the eight mishkals of Baber afford a far more hopeful estimate of the weight of the diamond. This is a Persian weight, and seems to be and to have been far less liable to fluctuation or variety in value at different times or places. The Persian mishkal, or half-dirhem, weighs 74-5 grains troy, and eight of these equal 596 grains, or 187°58 carats.* The Koh-i-Noor | in the Exhibition of 1851 weighed 186 carats. This would require a weight of 1-848 grains for the rati, a number nearly approximating to that given by the coins of Akbar. Accepting then the conclusion, that the great diamond which was the spoil of Ala ed Deen in 1306, and had probably been for ages the crown jewel of the independent Rajahs of Malwa, passed to the Mogul conqueror of the Pathan sovereigns, and was so inherited by the Mogul emperors, and was seen in their possession by Tavernier in the reign of Aurungzebe ; Mr. Maskelyne went on to trace its subsequent history. It remained at Delhi, until another, the fiercest and the last of the great inroads of Western Tartar peoples, broke over the hills of Affghanistan, and flooded the plains of North Western India. The history of Thamas Kouli Khan, Nadir Shah, is sufficiently near to the present time to fall almost within the field of European contest in In- dia. This conqueror from the west gave back the prostrate empire of India to his Tartar “ kinsman” on the throne of Delhi, and exchanged turbans with him,—so says tradition,—in sign of eternal amity. The proud diamond of the Moguls was in the cap of the vassal, and was saluted by the title of Kuh-i-Noor, “ Mound of Light” by his suzerain. It went back * The carat = 3°17 grains Troy weight. 280 Scientific Intelligence. with all the fabulous wealth the Persian host bore with them to Khoras- san. From Nadir Shah it passed into the hands of his powerless repre- sentative Shah Rokh; but it was not one of the jewels afterwards ex- torted from him by such frightful torture. The history of Ahmed Shah, founder of the short-lived Douranee empire, is that of many other his- toric names. The realms conquered by Nadir fell asunder at his death ; and the Affghan, captain of his horse and lord of his treasure, secured for himself the kingdoms surrounding his native passes, and erected them into an empire, which extended from Moultan to Herat, from Peshawur to Candahar. From his Affghan eyrie he descended to aid his old mas- ter’s son in the hour of his adversity, sealed an alliance with him, and bore back the great diamond whose beauties “its blind owner could no longer see,” and which became once more an equivocal symbol of friend- ship between sovereigns of whom the recipient of the diamond was the stronger. From Ahmed Shah it descended with the throne to his sons. The wild romance of Shah Soujah’s life was in no small degree linked with this gem. Long hidden in the wall of a fortress that had been Shah Zemaun’s prison, it shone on the breast of Shah Soujah when the Eng- lish embassy visited Peshawur. Mahmoud reasserted with success the claim of might to the empire of his brother, and Shah Soujah became an exile. But his companion in that exile was the Koh-i-Noor, and, hunted from Peshawur to Cashmere, and decoyed from Cashmere to Lahore, Shah Soujah became in semblance the guest, in reality the prisoner, of Runjeet the Lion. He disgorged the prize for the sake of which the lord of the five rivers had inveigled him to his lair: and the ex-king of Cau- bul and Douranee prince escaped the gripe of his savage tyrant only to enter on adventures, the story of which might for incident and hardship challenge the pages of romance. The Koh-i-Noor had again been true to its tradition. It had passed from the weak to the strong under the sem- blance of righteousness. “At what do you estimate its value?” said Runjeet to his victim. “ At good luck,” replied Shah Soujah, “for it hath ever been the property of him that hath conquered his enemies.” The successors of Runjeet Sing inherited the Koh-i-Noor, and when the Sikh power fell before the arms of England, which it had challenged, the talisman of Indian sway passed from the treasury of Lahore to the jewel-chamber of Windsor; and reposes once again, as the proudest jewel in the tiara of Indian empire. But it is no more the Mountain of Light. It is no longer the finest diamond known in the world: it has been recut, as well perhaps as it was possible to recut it*, and is now a brilliant, weighing but 103 carats. Although no more the 8 mishkals of Dia- mond that Baber valued at half the rent-roll of a world, it is the identi- cal gem that has contributed its light to the glories of every dynasty that has dazzled the East by the supremacy of its arms for perhaps a thousand ears. t 9. On the origin of Greensand, and its formation in the Oceans of the present epoch; by Prof. J. W. Batzzy, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 364.)—As an introduction to the subject of this paper, it is proper to refer to various observations which have been made of facts intimately * The artistic part of the work, performed by Dutch artists under the superintend- ance of Messrs. Gerrard, the Queen’s Jeweller, was admirably executed. —~ Mineralogy and Geology. 281 related to those which I wish to present. That the calcareous shells of the Polythalamia are sometimes replaced by silica, appears to have been first noticed by Ehrenberg, who, in a note transiated by Mr. Weaver, and published in the L., E. and D. Philosophical Journal for 1841, (vol. xviii, p- 397,) says :— “| may here remark that my continued researches on the Polythalamia of the Chalk, have convinced me that very frequently in the earthy coat- ing of flints, which is partly calcareous and partly siliceous, the original calcareous shelled animal forms have exchanged their lime for silex with- out undergoing any alteration in figure, so that while some are readily dissolved by an acid, others remain insoluble; but in chalk itself, all similar forms are immediately dissolved.” The first notice of casts of the cells and soft parts of the Polythalamia was published by myself in the American Journal of Science for 1845, vol. xlviii, where I stated as follows :— “The specimens from Fort Washington presented me with what I be- lieve have never been betore noticed, viz: distinct casts of Polythalamia. That these minute and perishable shells should, when destroyed by chem- ical changes, ever leave behind them indestructible memorials of their existence was scarcely to be expected, yet these casts of Polythalamia are abundant arid easily to be recognized in some of the Eocene Marls from Fort Washington.” This notice was accompanied by figures of well- defined casts of Polythalamia (I. ¢. pl. iv, fig. 30, 31). Dr. Mantell also noticed the occurrence of casts of Polythalamia and their soft parts, preserved in flint and chalk, and communicated an ac- count of them to the Royal Society of London, in May, 1846. In this paper he speaks of the chambers of Polythalamia as being frequently filled with chalk, flint, and s¢licate of ron. (Phil. Trans., 1846, p. 466.) To Ehrenberg, however, appears to be due the credit of first distinctly | announcing the connection between the Polythalamia and the formation of Greensand, thus throwing the first light upon the origin of a substance which has long been a puzzle to geologists. In a notice given by this distinguished observer upon the nature of the matrix of the bones of the Zeuglodon from Alabama, (see Monatsbericht, Berlin, February, 1855,) he says :— “That Greensand, in all the numerous relations in which I have as yet examined it, has been recognized as due to the filling up of organic cells, as a formation of stony casts (Steinkernbildung) mostly of Polythalamia, was stated in July of the preceding year.” He then refers to the Num- mulite Limestone of Traunstein in Bavaria, as rich in green opal-like casts (Opalsteinkernen) of well-preserved Polythalamian forms, and men- tions them as also occurring, but more rarely, in the Glauconite Lime- stones of France. He then proceeds to give an account of his detection of similar casts in the limestone adhering to the bones of the Zeuglodon from Alabama, and states that this limestone abounds in well-preserved brown, green, and whitish stony casts of recognizable Polythalamia. This limestone is yellowish, and under a lens appears spotted with green. These green spots are the Greensand casts of Polythalamia, and they often form as much as one-third of the mass. By solution in dilute chloro- hydric acid, the greensand grains are left, mixed with quartzuse sand, and SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856. 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. with a light yellowish mud. The latter is easily removed by washing and decantation. The casts thus obtained are so perfect that not only the genus, but often the species of the Polythalamia, can be recognized, Mingled with these are frequently found spiral or corkscrew-like bodies, which Ehrenberg considers as casts of the shells of young mollusks. With reference to the perfection of these casts of the Polythalamia, and the light they throw upon the structure of these minute animals, Ehren- berg remarks :— “The formation of the Greensand consists in a gradual filling up of the interior space of the minute bodies with a green-colored, opal-like mass, which forms therein as a cast. It is a peculiar species of natural injec- tion, and is often so perfect, that not only the large and coarse cells, but also the very finest canals of the cell walls, and all their connecting tubes are thus petrified, and separately exhibited. By no artificial method can such fine and perfect injections be obtained.” Having repeated the experiments of Ehrenberg upon the Zeuglodon limestone, I can confirm his statements in every particular, and would only add, that besides the casts of Polythalamia and small spiral mollusks, there is also a considerable number of green, red, and whitish casts of minute anastomosing tubuli, resembling casts of the holes made by burrowing sponges (Cliona) and worms. In the Berlin Monatsbericht, for July, 1855, Ehrenberg gives an ac- count of very perfect casts of Nummulites, from Bavaria and from France, showing not only chambers connected by a spiral siphuncle, but also a complicated system of branching vessels. He also gave at the same time an account of a method he had applied for the purpose of coloring certain glass-like casts of Polythalamia, which he had found in white tertiary limestone from Java. This method consists in heating them in a solution of nitrate of iron, by means of which they can be made to assume differ- ent shades of yellow and brownish red, still retaining sufficient transpa- rency when mounted in balsam to show the connection of the different arts. i The interesting observations of Ehrenberg which are alluded to above, have led me to examine a number of the cretaceous and tertiary rocks of North America in search of Greensand and other casts of Polythalamia, &e. The following results were obtained :— Ist. The yellowish limestone of the cretaceous deposits of New Jersey occurring with Teredo tibialis, &., at Mullica Hill, and near Mount Hol- ley, is very rich in Greensand casts of Polythalamia and of the tubuliform bodies above alluded to. 2d. Cretaceous rocks from Western Texas, for which I am indebted to Major W. H. Emory, of the Mexican Boundary Commission, yielded a considerable number of fine Greensand and other casts of Polythalamia and. Tubuli. 3d. Limestone from Selma, Alabama, gave similar results. 4th. Eocene limestone from Drayton Hall, near Charléston, South Caro- lina, gave abundance of similar casts. sth. A few good Greensand casts of Polythalamia were found in the residue left on dissolving a specimen of marl trom the Artesian Well at Charleston, S.C.; depth 140 feet. Mineralogy and Geology. 283 6th. Abundance of organic casts, in Greensand, &e., of Polythalamia, Tubuli, and of the cavities of Corals, were found in the specimen of yel- lowish limestone, adhering to a specimen of Scutella Lyelli from the Ko- cene of North Carolina. 7th. Similar casts of Polythalamia, Tubuli, and of the cavities of Cor- als, and spines of Echini, were found abundantly in a whitish limestone adhering to a specimen of Ostrea sellzetormis from the Eocene of South Carolina. The last two specimens scarcely gave any indications of the presence of Greensand before they were treated with dilute acid, but left an abun- dant deposit of it when the calcareous portions were dissolved out. All the above mentioned specimens, contained well-preserved and _ perfect shells of Polythalamia. It appears from the above, that the occurrence of well-defined organic casts, composed of Greensand, is by no means rare in the fossil state. I come now to the main object of this paper, which is to announce that the formation of precisely similar Greensand and other casts of Polythal- amia, Mollusks, and Tubuli, is now going on in the deposits of the pres- ent ocean. In an interesting report by Count F. Pourtales, upon some specimens of soundings obtained by the U.S. Coast Survey in the explo- ration of the Gulf Stream, (See Report of U.S. Coast Survey, for 1853, Appendix, p. 83,) the sounding, from Lat. 31° 32’, Long. 79° 35’, depth 150 fathoms, is mentioned as “a mixture in about equal proportions of Globigerina aud black sand, probably greensand, as it makes a green mark when crushed on paper.” Having examined the specimen alluded to by Mr. Pourtales, besides many others from the Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico, for which I arn indebted to Prof. A. D. Bache, the Superintend- ent of the Coast Survey, I have found that not only is Greensand present - at the above locality, but at many others, both in the Gulf Stream and Zulf of Mexico, and that this Greensand is often in the form of well-de- fined casts of Polythalamia, minute Mollusks, and branching Tubuli, and that the same variety of the petrifying material is found as in the fossil casts, some being well-defined Greensand, others reddish, brownish, or al- most white. In some cases I have noticed a single cell, of a spiral Poly- thalamian cast, to be composed of Greensand, while all the others were red or white, or vice versa. The species of Polythalamia whose casts are thus preserved, are easily recognizable as identical with those whose perfectly preserved shells form the chief part of the soundings. That these are of recent species is _ proved by the facts that some of them still retain their brilliant red col- oring, and that they leave distinct remains of their soft parts when treated with dilute acids. It is not to be supposed, therefore, that these casts are of extinct species washed out of ancient submarine deposits. They are now forming in the muds as they are deposited, and we have thus now going on in the present seas, a formation of Greensand by processes pre- cisely analogous to those which produced deposits of the same material as long ago as the Silurian epoch. In this connection, it is important to ob- serve that Ehrenberg’s observations and my own, establish the fact that other organic bodies than Polythalamia produce casts of Greensand, and it should also be stated that many of the grains of Greensand accompany- 284 Scientific Intelligence. ing the well-defined casts are of wholly unrecognizable forms, having merely a rounded, cracked, lobed, or even coprolitic appearance. Certainly many of these masses, which ofien compose whole strata, were not formed either in the cavities of Polythalamia or Mollusks. The fact, however, being” established beyond a doubt, that Greensand does form casts in the cavities of various organic bodies, there is a great prebability that all the masses of this substance, however irregular, were formed in connection with organic bodies, and that the chemical changes accompanying the decay of the organic matter have been essentially connected with the de- posits in the cavities, of green and red silicates of iron, and of nearly pure silica. It is a curious fact in this connection, that the s/iceous organisms, such as the Diatomacez, Polycistineze, and Spongiolites which accom- pany the Polythalamia in the Gulf Stream, do not appear to have any influence in the formation of casts. The discovery of Prof. Ehrenberg, of the connection between organic bodies and the formation of Greensand, is one of very great interest, and is one of the many instances which he has given to prove the extensive agency of the minutest beings in producing geological changes. III. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Wild Potatoes in New Mexico and Western Texas.—We have re- ceived from Dr. A.J. Myer, U.S. A., through the Surgeon ,General, a de- tailed communication on the discovery i in western Texas of what he takes to be the common potato (Solanum tuberosum, L.,) in a wild state, ac- companied with specimens of the tubers and of the whole plant neatly dried and prepared. Dr. Myer first detected the plant on and near the Rio Limpio, and afterwards ascertained that it was pretty widely diffused throughout all that region and into New Mexico. The tuber, though small, being rarely as large as a hickory nut, have been gathered, cooked and eaten by officers and soldiers, and they proved to be both palatable and innocent. - It naturally occurred to Dr. Myer that his discovery might be turned to useful account; that these wild potatoes would probably in- crease in size and improve in flavor under continued cultivation; and that, if the well-known potato-rot were owing, as many suppose, to an attack of minute Fungi, or to a general debility of constitution resulting from propagation for generation after generation by the tuber, and seldom re- newed from seed, or from both these causes combined, the proper remedy would be to begin anew with a wild stock; and that these indigenous potatoes of our own country would furnish an excellent stock for the pur- pose, and one which might be expected to resist the disease for a long time, if not altogether. Such, in brief, is the substance of Dr. Myer’s commendable communi- cation, made to his official superior, the Surgeon General, and by him of- fered for publication in this Journal. The article is too long to be in- seited, however ; especially as the facts and the suggestions it comprises have not the novelty which Dr. Myer naturally supposed they had. But his laudable endeavors and observations ought not to pass unnoticed ; and having given’ this very brief abstract of his principal points,—which he Botany and Zoology. 285 has ably but rather diffusely elaborated, we take the opportunity to re- mark :— (1.). That the wild potato-plant in question is a true potato, but not of the same species as the common potato, the Solanum tuberosum. Indeed two tuberiferous species of Solanum occur in that region. One has a white and 5-parted corolla, and oblong-lanceolate leaflets mostly acute at the base, and is probably 8. Jamesii of Torrey (which, if we are correct, was wrongly thought to be annual): the other, to which belong the spe- cimens sent by Dr. Myer, has a blue, 5-lobed corolla, and ovate or round- ish leaflets which are often a little heart-shaped at the base ; ‘and this if really undescribed, will soon be published under the name of S. Fendleri. Both are distinguished from S. tuberosum by having their leaflets uni- form, or only the lowest pairs smaller, while in the common potato, and the 18 allied forms recognised by Dunal as species (but perhaps all mere varieties of one species,) a set of much smaller leaflets are interposed be- tween the larger ones. (2.) These wild potatoes have been known for some time. Passing by Dr. James, who gathered the one which bears his name, 36 years ago, but without knowing it was tuberiferous, we may attribute their proper discovery to that most excellent botanical explorer, Mr. Fendler, whose collection made nine years ago in the northern part of New Mexico, com- prised both species, with their tubers. They were also gathered by Mr. Wright, in 1849, and are contained in his invaluable collection made be- tween Eastern Texas and El Paso by the military road then opened through that region: and again in 1851 and 1852, they were gathered in various parts of New Mexico by Mr. Wright, Dr. Bigelow, and the other naturalists attached to the Mexican Boundary Commission, who recognised their near relationship to the common potato. | (3.) Some experience has already been had in cultivating other and nearly related species as a substitute for Solanum tuberosum, but without the good results that were hoped for. M. Alph. De Candolle relates _(Prodr. 13, p. 677,) that the Mexican Solanum verrucosum, was cultiva- ted two years in Switzerland, near Geneva, without being affected by the disease which destroyed all the crops of the common potato in the vicin- ity; but on the third year this also was attacked (Vide Alph. DeCand. Geogr. Bot., p. 815). A. G. 2. Notes on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca; Nos. I. and II; on some Species of Beyrichia from the upper silurian ‘limestones of Scandinavia and other regions British and Foreign; by T. Rupert Jonzs, F.G.S.— These important researches, illustrated by copper plates, are published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, for August and September, 1855. _8. Cume.—In a recent number of the Annals and Magazine of Nat- ural History, Mr. Bates describes some Crustacea related to Cume, which had young and therefore were adults. This is not in conflict with the statement of Prof. Agassiz in this Journal, vol. xii, p. 426, where he says: “In regard to the Crustacea called Cums, I cannot say positively that the group must as a whole be suppressed. But I can state with confi- dence that all the species of that genus which I have had an opportunity to examine alive—and I have watched three—are young of Palaemon 286 _ Scientific Intelligence. Crangon and Hippolyte.” Prof. Agassiz in a recent letter (to J. D. Dana, dated Nahant, July 18th,) respecting these observations of Mr. Bates, writes that “they only show how extensive a field of observation remains untrodden among these little forms. Had Mr. Bates looked more fully into the embryology of Crustacea he would be better prepared to appre- ciate the close correspondence there is between the young of certain fam- ilies and the adults of others, and know that these facts are not limited to the Macroura, as I have shown in my lectures on embryology, p. 62 to 69: he would know that the eyes of even the highest Crustacea are sessile in the young, etc., and that such characters observed upon young Crustacea do not therefore prove them to be peculiar types, unless at the same time their reproduction be satisfactorily traced. Acknowledging Mr. Bates’s interesting observation as proving that his Diastylis Rathkii is an adult animal, the question has made a real progress through his re- searches; but it remains as certain as before, that there are Cume which are larve of Macroura.” 4. Insecta Maderensia, being an Account of the Insects of the Islands of the Maderan Group; by T. Vernon Woutaston, M.A., FERS. 634 pp., 4to, with 13 well-filled colored plates. London, 1854. John Van Voorst. On the Variation of Species with especial reference to the Insecta, fol- lowed by an inquiry into the Nature of Genera; by T. Vernon Wot- taston, M.A. F.L.S. 208 pp. 12mo. London, 1856. John Van Voorst. The first of these works is an elegant quarto volume containing full descriptions, of the Insects of the Madeira Islands, with remarks on their distribution, habits and varieties. The author went as an invalid to the regions he has so carefully investigated, and we rejoice with him in the invigoration he found in pursuing his favorite science among the heights and gorges of that delightful land. As giving some picture of the au- thor, we quote a paragraph or two from his Introduction :— “The admirer of Nature who has passed a long winter at the moun- tain’s base, contented merely to gaze upon the towering peaks, which, though clear and cold at night, seldom reveal themselves during the day with sufficient constancy (through the heavy canopy of cloud which hangs around them) to warrant an ascent, hails with unbounded joy the advance of spring,—knowing that the time is at hand when he will be able to revel at large in this Atlantic paradise, in remote spots seldom visited by strangers, and at altitudes where the fierce elements of winter shall give way at last to perpetual sunshine and the fresh breezes of a calmer sea. There is something amazingly luxurious in betaking oneself to tent-life, after months of confinement and annoyance (it may be en- tirely,— partially it must be) in the heat and noise of Funchal. We are then perhaps more than ever open to the favorable impressions of an alpine existence ;—and who can adequately tell the ecstasy of a first encampment on.these invigorating hills! To turn out, morning after morning, in the solemn stillness of aérial forests—where not a sound is heard, save ever and anon a woodman’s axe in some far-off tributary ra- vine, or a stray bird hymning forth its matin song to the ascending sun ; to feel the cool influence of the early dawn on the upland sward, and to Botany and Zoology. 287 mark the thin clouds of fleecy snow uniting gradually into a solid bank,— affording glimpses the while, as they join and separate, of the fair crea- tion stretched out beneath; to smell the damp, cold vapor rising from the deep defiles around us, where vegetation is still rampant on primeval rocks and new generations of trees are springing up, untouched by man, from the decaying carcases of the old ones; to listen in the still, calm evening air to the humming of the insect world (the most active tenants of these elevated tracts); and to mark, as the daylight wanes, the un- numbered orbs of night stealing one by one on to the wide arch of heaven, as brilliant as they were on the first evening of their birth ;— are the lofty enjoyments, which the intellectual mind can grasp in these transcendent heights. “Tt is needless however to pursue the picture further, for it is impos- sible to do justice to what expercence alone can enable us to appreciate. And let not any one suppose that the varied objects and scenes of nov- elty which administer to our superior feelings, and charm the eye, in these upland solitudes are adapted only to the scrutiny of a naturalist, and are either beneath the notice of, or else cannot be sufficiently entered into, by the general mgss,—for such is by no means the case. A single trial, we are convined, will be more than enough to prove the reverse, pro- vided the adventurer be not altogether insensible to perceptions from without, or incurious as to the workings of the external universe around him. ‘This however, we need scarcely add, is sine gua non,—for it has been well said that “he who wondereth at nothing hath no capabilities of bliss; but he that scrutenizeth trifles hath a store of pleasure to his hand: and happy and wise is the man to whose mind a trifle existeth not.” “The great expense necessarily attending the publication of a work like the present one will be a sufficient guarantee that it has been un- dertaken purely as a ‘labor of love,’ and with the sole aim (within its prescribed limits) of arriving at the truth. How far I have succeeded in this is a problem which must be solved by others: meanwhile I ap- peal boldly to observation, in situ, as the test by which I would most de- sire to be judged,—having but little fear of the experiment, and believing that we are never in so favorable a position for deciding on the relative importance of Zoological differences as when the local circumstances connected with them are taken into account. Where I have overlooked facts, or failed in my conclusions concerning them, I must crave that in- dulgence which is never denied to the honest inquirer even in a field so small as that throughout which my researches have been prosecuted,— researches which I am well aware can at the best add but an iota to our knowledge,—‘ A drop dissevered from the boundless sea.’ ” The second work discusses a philosophical question in science through the facts the author has gathered in his entomological researches. While having no sympathy with the notion of species rising into higher species, he illustrates the relations of genera as follows, taking the ground that they are realities and have their well defined types or centres while on their borders they may blend with other genera. “Taking the preceding considerations into account, the question will perhaps arise,—How then is a genus to be defined? To which I may 288 | Scientific Intelligence. reply that, were I asked whether genera had a real existence in the ani- mate world, my answer would be that they undoubtedly have,—though not in the sense (which is so commonly supposed) of abrupt and discon- nected groups. I conceive them to be gradually formed nuclei, through the gathering together of creatures which more or less resemble each other, around a central type: they are the dilatations (to use our late simile) along a chain which is itself composed of separate, though dif- ferently shaped links,—the links being the actual species themselves, and the swellings, or nodes, the slowly developed genera into which they naturally fall. When I say “slowly developed,” my meaning may pos- sibly require some slight comment. It is simply therefore to guard against the fallacy, which I have so often disclaimed, that genera are abruptly (or suddenly) terminated on their outer limits, that the expres- sion has been employed. Though I believe that a series of species, each partially imitating the next in contact with it, is Nature’s truest system ; yet we must be all of us aware that those species do certainly tend, in the main, to map out assemblages of divers phases and magnitudes, dis- tinguished by peculiar characteristics which the several members of each squadron have more or lessin common. So that it is qnly in the middle points that these various groups, respectively, attain herr maximum,— every one of which (by way of illustration) may be described as a con- centric bulb, which becomes denser, as it were, in its successive compo- nent layers, and more typical, as it approaches its core.” | The main topic of the work is the variations which species undergo. He illustrates it by facts and urges the importance of its study as the foundation of our knowledge of species. With every species in nature, organic or inorganic, there appears to be a normal type admitting of librations in many of its characters, on either side through external influ- ences; and the complete idea involves a knowledge of the extent and laws of these librations. We cite the following from the author’s con- cluding chapter. “ As regards that most obscure of questions, what the limits of species really are, observation alone can decide the point. It frequently hap- pens indeed that even observation itself is imsufficient to render the lines of demarcation intelligible,—therefore, how much more mere dia- lectics ! | To attempt to argue such a subject on abstract principles, would be simply absurd; for as Lord Bacon has remarked, the “subtility of Na- ture far exceeds the subtility of reasoning :” but if, by a careful collation of facts, and the sifting of minute particulars gathered from without, the problem be fairly and deliberately surveyed, the various disturbing elements which the creatures have been severally exposed to, having been duly taken into account, the boundaries will not often be difficult to define. Albeit, we must except those races of animals and plants which, through a long course of centuries, have become modified by man,—the starting-points of which will perhaps continue to the last to be shrouded in mystery and doubt. It would be scarcely consistent indeed to weigh tribes which have been thus unnaturally tampered with by the same standard of evidence as we require for those which have remained for ever untouched and free,—especially so, since (as we have already Botany and Zoology. 289 observed) it does absolutely appear, that those species, the external aspects of which have been thus artificially controlled, are by constitu- tion more tractile (and possess, therefore, more decided powers for aber- ration,) than the rest. Whether traces of design may be recognized in this circumstance, or whether those forms were originally selected by man on account of their pliability, it is not for me to conjecture; never- theless, the first of these inferences is the one which I should, myself, be @ priorz inclined to subscribe to. In examining, however, this enigma, of the limits within which varia- tion is (as such) to be recognized, it should never be forgotten, that it is possible for those boundaries to be absolutely and critically marked out even where we are not able to discern them: so that the difficulty which a few domesticated creatures of a singularly flexible organization present, should not unnecessarily predispose us to dispute the question in its larger and more general bearings. Nor should we be unmindful that (as Sir Charles Lyell has aptly suggested) “some mere varieties present greater differences, inter se, than do many individuals of distinct species ;” for it is a truth of considerable importance, and one which may help us out of many an apparent dilemma. But, whatever be the several ranges within which the members of the organic creation are free to vary, we are positively certain that, unless the definition of a species, as involving relationship, be more than a delu- sion or romance, their circumferences are of necessity real, and must be indicated somewhere,—as strictly, moreover, and rigidly, as it is possible for anything in Nature to be chalked out. The whole problem, in that case, does in effect resolve itself into this,— Where, and how, are the lines of demarcation to be drawn? No amount of inconstancy, provided its limits be fixed, is irreconcilable with the doctrine of specific similitudes. Like the ever-shifting curves which the white foam of the untiring tide describes upon the shore, races may ebb and flow; but they have their boundaries, in either direction, beyond which they can never pass. And _thus in every species we may detect, to a greater or less extent, the em- blem of instability and permanence combined: although perceived, when inquired into, to be fickle and fluctuating in their component parts, in their general outline they remain steadfast and unaltered, as of old,— “Still changing, yet unchanged ; still doom’d to feel Endless mutation, in perpetual rest.” 5. On the Fresh water Entomostraca of South America; by Joun Lupsock, Esq., F.Z.S., (Trans. Ent. 8vo, ii, N.S., Part vi ) -Mr. Lubbock who has taken up the investigation of the Entomostraca with great zeal and success, describes in this paper four new species of Eutomostraca from South America, Cypris australis, C. brasiliensis, Daphnia bra- siliensis, and Diaptomus brasiliensis. They were collected by Charles Darwin, Esq. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856, 3” 290 Astronomy. Iv. ASTRONOMY. 1. Shooting Stars of August 10, 1856.—During the night of Friday, August 8th, 1856, the weather at New Haven was stormy. The next night on account of the cloudy state of the sky and other obstacles, no observation for meteors was attempted by us. On the night of August 10th—11th, observations were commenced by Messrs. Francis Bradley, Charles Tomlinson and myself. Until about half past one o’clock of Monday morning the sky was clear and favorable. From this time onward, clouds interfered more and more, so that by 2h 50™ a.m. of the 11th we left the field. During the period of observation, about 3 hours and 45 minutes, we noted two hundred and eighty three different shooting stars, as follows: 115 5™ to midn., W.N. W. 21 66 (75 A ce pa i) 6b a“ Midn. to 1 a.m. 11th, 66 (79 Pl 4 or us 27 66 79 1to2 A.M, 6c 79 PAZ PAs Pad w! q 4 a a In general characteristics these shooting stars resembled those of the August period in former years. The visible paths of a large part of them, if traced back, would meet in the vicinity of the sword-handle of Perseus. Some moved in other directions, and a few appeared to go towards the general radiant. Several of them equalled in brilliancy stars of the first magnitude, and left sparkling trains behind them. The present being leap-year, it is probable that the meteors were more numerous on the night of the 9th—10th, than on the night succeeding. HK. C, Herrick. 2. Astronomical Observatory at the University of Mississippi, (from a let- ter to the editors dated, University of Mississippi, Oxford, July 19, 1856.)— I think it may interest the scientific world to know, that the Board of Trus- tees of this University have sanctioned the erection of an Astronomical Observatory at this place, and have authorized a contract for a transit cir- cle similar to that introduced by Mr. Airy at Greenwich. Other instru- ments will be supplied hereafter. The building provides for a first-class equatorial telescope. On the completion of the circle, regular observations will be instituted and constantly sustained here. An ‘astronomer will be employed, with no other business but to observe. It is hoped that Mississippi will now make a beginning—the first ear- nest beginuing in the Southern States—to contribute etlectually to the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 progress of the noblest of sciences; and it is also hoped that this institu- tion may be the means of awakening to activity, and leading on to its full development, that native talent in southern youth, which, when it now appears, too often relapses into inaction, for the want of a field for its exercise. The principle which the Board of Trustees of this University have dis- tinctly recognised, as that which is to govern all their future policy in building up this institution, is that they will employ all their resources as fast as they become available, in adding to the means and appliances ac- cumulated here for acquiring or imparting knowledge in all its depart- ments ; and that, since the means will not probably be wanting to make the institution equal in all visible respects to the best on the continent, they will not be content to see it occupy, in any particular, an inferior position. They are therefore making steady and large appropriations for the in- crease of the library, for additions to the stock of philosophical and chem- ical apparatus, for minerals, shells, &e., &c., all of which are rapidly giv- ing to the University the aspect of an institution of long standing. The earnest desire of the Board is also to encourage here a spirit of original investigation, by putting the means of research into the hands of their officers, and it can hardly be doubted that when the arrangements shall have been carried out, which this enlightened policy has suggested, (which will be within two or three years,) Mississippi, through her Uni- versity, will place herself in a very honorable relation to the progress of intellectual improvement in the world. B. V. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. 1. Observations on the climates of California ; by Mr. Groner Barr- LETT, (from a letter dated, Providence, June 27, 1856.)—The natural forces which produce the various meteorological phenomena of California, are much less numerous than in the eastern part of the continent, and act on a much larger scale, and they are therefore more easily understood. In fact, with a knowledge of three great causes, the peculiarities of the several climates of California would have been readily anticipated. These are ; 1st, the cold ocean current which rolls along the coast from northwest to southeast; 2d, the direction of the winds , 3d, that property of air by which its capacity for containing moisture is increased with the elevation of its temperature. The ocean current will no doubt be thoroughly exam- ined in the course of the Coast Survey. Dr. Gibbons, of San Francisco, ascertained at one time its temperature to be 54° Fahrenheit. Now, during the summer months, as soon as the rays of the sun have warmed the air over the land, it becomes rarified, and the colder and heavier air rushes in under it from the ocean, producing that sea-breeze, which lashes the coast of California with so remarkable regularity, al- most every afternoon throughout the summer months, driving the sand through the air, and compelling people to put on over-coats and kindle fires, even under that cloudless sky and in those low latitudes. As this cold air, from the ocean is warmed by the land, of course its capacity for holding moisture is increased, and instead of there being any tendency to 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. form clouds and to rain, it becomes a very drying air, absorbing water from everything that it touches. This is the very simple and plain ex- planation of the dry season. The most wonderful phenomenon of the California climates, is the marked manner in which they are cut in two by no higher chain of mountains than the Coast Range. This range extends along the coast of California from latitude 344 to 414, and is so low, that snow collects dur- ing the winter only on a few of the highest peaks. Now, while the west- ern side of this range has the cold summer above described, the valley on the east side is one of the hottest portions of the earth. This valley, through which flow, in opposite directions, the waters of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, extends about 400 miles from north to south, with an average breadth of perhaps 60 miles, from the Coast Range on the west to the Sierra Nevada on the east. It is a very flat valley, much more level than the western prairies, and occupies the great portion of the interior of California. It has been quite difficult to obtain exposures of a thermometer which were unobjectional. In the cloth tents and stores which were in use in 1849 and 750, the temperature would range in the warm days from 115° to 120°. On the north side of a large tree, also in a wooden cabin covered with earth, a friend of the writer ob- served the mercury at 110° and 112° during many of the days of 1850. On the north side of a large two-story frame house, with but one other house near, and that one several rods distant, the writer has observed the mercury at 109°. But Dr. Haille at Marysville, by hanging his ther- mometer in a draft of air in the back part of his office, where it was shaded by high buildings around, succeeded in keeping the mercury down to 102° during the summer of 1852. The sun rises clear, in the east, rolls up over the heads of the inhabitants, drying and scorching everything in sight, and sinks into the west—‘“ One unclouded blaze of living light.” And this is repeated day after day, and month after month. The hottest time of day is about half-past five in the afternoon. The nights are cool; you need two or three blankets to sleep comfortably even in the hottest part of the summer. ; 1792-94: x xe =5380°24 530°24—443:28=86:96=equiv. of Li, le the two numbers thus obtained for Lithium agreeing with re- markable closeness. The difference between these numbers and those of Berze- lius and Hagen is however considerable; and as it seemed possi- ble that a little chlorid of sodium still retained in spite of the purification by ether-alcohol might be the cause of this differ- ence, I resolved to precipitate a solution of this supposed pure ehlorid of lithium with carbonate of ammonia, to redissolve the carefully washed carbonate of lithia in hydrochloric acid, and, again evaporating to dryness and fusing, to redetermine the chlorine by a slightly different method—namely, that of analy- sis by measure, as applied by Pelouze to the examination of the atomic weights of sodium and barium. 8°9942 orm. of the chlorid of lithium thus prepared from the carbonate were dissolved in water. 10°1278 grm. of chemically pure silver (the quantity necessary for the precipitation of the chlorine, if Li=89-, and therefore not quite sufficient for the amount of Cl actually present) were dissolved in pure nitric acid, and the two solutions were mixed in a white glass flask. The mixture was gently heated, and shaken until the chlorid of sil- ver had completely separated, leaving the fluid clear. A solu- tion of 1 grm. of pure silver in nitric acid had been prepared, and diluted until the volume=1000 cubic centimeters; 1 c. c. therefore containing ‘001 grm. of silver. This solution was now 356 J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium. cautiously added to the fluid in the flask from a pipette furnished with a small glass stop-cock and graduated to the one-fifth of a cub. centim. ; the flask being shaken after each addition of the test fluid until the chlorid of silver had completely separated. 424. c. c. of this dilute solution of nitrate of silver were needed “a complete the precipitation of the chlorine,= ‘0424 grm. of silver. Hence altogether 10°1278+:0424=10°1702 orm. of silver had been used. 1071702 : 8:9942 ; ; 1849-66 (equiv. of Ag): x x =580°06 (equiv. of LiCl). 530:06—4438:28 (equiv. of Cl)=86'78=equiv. of Li. This number agrees sufficiently nearly with those derived from the two former experiments to show that all three are de- serving of confidence. If we take the mean of the three, we shall have the number 86°89 for the equivalent of lithium; and this may, I believe, be fairly trusted as a closer approximation to the truth than any of the numbers hitherto received, if we take into account the greater scale upon which the analyses have been made, and the difference in the methods pursued. For it will be observed that the effect of the difficulty in determining sulphate of baryta already mentioned (namely the adherence of a little of the salt used for precipitation so as to scarcely permit its removal by washing) will necessarily be to increase the appa- rent per-centage of sulphuric acid in the sulphate of lithia an- alyzed, and hence to give a lower equivalent for the alkali than the true one. But this is the method by which the results hith- erto most relied upon have been obtained. The number 86°89 on the oxygen scale corresponds to 6°95 upon the hydrogen—thus making the equivalent of lithium almost exactly an even multiple of that of hydrogen, in accord- ance with the analogy which seems to extend further and further through the list of elements, as our knowledge of their atomic weights becomes more exact. And further, if we take the mean of the equivalents of potas- sium and lithium, using 86°89 for the latter, we get-— 488°86 (Marignac) 86°89 2)575°75 287°87 — almost exactly the equivalent of sodium (28744) as determined by Pelouze. On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 357 ArT. XXVII.—On the Relations of the Fossil Fishes of the Sand- stone of Connecticut and other Atlantic States to the Liassic and Oolitic Periods; by W. C. REDFIELD. Read before the American Association at Albany, Aug. 28, 1856. In the publications of Professor W. B. Rogers and Mr. H. Hitchcock, Jr., on the red sandstone beds of Connecticut, New Jersey and other States, founded on some of the contained fossils, a higher geological position than that of the New Red Sandstone has been assigned to the formation by these writers.* Without questioning their conclusions, I would here observe that the fossil fishes of these rocks are the most characteristic and apparently reliable fossils for determining the age of the formation. The de- terminative value of these fossils is perhaps enhanced, also, by the small vertical range to which some of the species, and at least one of the genera, are probably limited. But these fishes, although numerous as well as characteristic, do not appear to have been referred to, in any manner, by the above named writers. Attention is invited, therefore, to a descriptive account of one genus or group of these fishes, which was read to the New York liyceum of Natural History, in Dec. 1836, by Mr. John H. Red- field, and is found in vol. iv of the “Annals” of that Society. It * Prof. W. B. Rogers On the age of the coal rocks of Eastern Virginia, Am. Jour. of Science, vol. xliii, p. 175, (1842). Also, in Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. v, p. 14, (1854).—E. Hitchcock, Jr, M.D. in Am. Jour. of Science, vol. xx, (N.8.) p. 22, (1855). Prof. Rogers first assigns to the coal rocks of Eastern Virginia a position near the bottom of the Oolite formation of Europe; while from some fossils “discovered in a particular division of the New Red Sandstone of Virginia,” he expects to be able confidently to announce the “existence of beds corresponding to the Keuper in Europe,’—doubtless in the extensions of the New Jersey Sandstones or Newark group. I propose the latter designation as a convenient name for these rocks, and those of the Connecticut valley, with which they are thoroughly identified by foot- prints and other fossils, and I would include also, the contemporary sandstones of Virginia and N. Carolina. At a later period, (1854) Prof. Rogers recognizes the general equivalency of the eastern and middle belts of Virginia, and the eastern or Deep River coal belt of N. Carolina: all of which in his view ought to be placed in the Jurassic series, not far probably above its base. In relation to the more western belt, the occurrence of Posidoniz, and Cypride, in Pennsylvania, with sauroid coprolites and imperfect im- pressions of Zamites leaves, he considers as sufficient to identify, as one formation, the disconnected tracts of this belt, in N. Carolina and Virginia and the prolonged area of the so-called New Red Sandstone of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jer- sey; and that they are of Jurassic date, but little anterior to the coal rocks of Eastern Virginia. Prof. H. D. Rogers (1839) proposed the name of middle secondary to this group (for convenience sake) to distinguish it from the Appalachian formations on the one hand, and from the green sand deposits on the other.—Third Report on Geol. of Pennsylvania, p. 12. Mr. Hitchcock describes a new species of Clathopteris, discovered in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley. This fossil fern, found near the middle of the series in Massachusetts, he refers to the liassic period. 358 Onthe Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. was founded upon a careful comparison of the genus Catopterus with the fossil fishes of different formations in Kurope, as these are portrayed in the great work of Prof. Agassiz, then recently received. Such portion of the description and observations then made as relate directly to the geological age of the forma- tion are here quoted. Of the genus Cutopterus, species C. gracilis, he says:—“ Tail forked, equilobed. Scales extending a little upon the base of the upper lobe.” And in regard to the equilobed tail, he adds in a subjoined note :—‘“‘ This indeed is not strictly the case. Its structure, however, is analogous to that of the Semzonotus, ranked by Agassiz among the Homocerct, and differs most deci- dedly from that of the true Heterocerci, where the scales, and probably the vertebrae, extend to the extreme point of the upper lobe.” He adds :— ‘In the arrangement of Agassiz, this fish would be compre- hended in the order Ganovdes, and family Lepidoides. Its equi- lobed tail would assign it to the second division of the family, the Homocerci, as he has termed them. From seven fusiform genera now arranged in this division it is entirely excluded by the posterior position of its dorsal. It may therefore be ranked between the genera Semionotus and Pholidophorus, being analo- gous to both in the structure of the tail, and in its serrated fins, and to the latter in the articulation of the rays. From the situ- ation of the dorsal fin I have thought the name Catopterus to be applicable to this new genus.”—Annals Lyc. Nat. Hist. vol. iv, pp. 88-39. Nearly twenty years have elapsed since the promulgation of these careful and apparently conclusive observations, which do not appear to have been weakened or set aside by any subse- quent researches. Itis proper to state that the two analogous genera above mentioned are found in the Oolitic series as well as in the Lias, and it is believed that few, if any of the kindred genera have a lower range.* ‘The above observations afford at least sufficient warrant for the cautious and perhaps too limited * A single case of semi-heterocercal structure as occurring in the coal rocks of Autun in France, was mentioned to us by Professor Agassiz in 1846. As we learn nothing more of its appearance in the paleozoic series, may there not possibly be an error as regards the authenticity or position of this fish? If otherwise it does not seem to have appeared again until after the Permian period. On the other hand, it appears to be admitted that the true heterocerques, of the Palwoniscus type, do not appear above the Trias, and I think they are not found above the Per- Mian. It should be noted that Sir. P. Egerton has described a most singular fish from the upper strata of the New Red, of a genus hitherto unknown, which has but little inequality in the structure of its caudal base. This fish, the Dipteronotus cyphus Eg., is very short and broad, with a double dorsal, and is altogether so unique in its character that its occurrence may be deemed to affect but little the chronological inferences which are drawn from the varied structure of the numerous genera and species of the Lepidoid family—See Geol, Jour. 1854, p. 869, with a figure. On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 359 inferences with which Mr. R.’s paper in the Annals is concluded: viz. “Tt has of late years been generally admitted that the sand- stone from which these fishes are derived is of much later date than the old red sandstone, to which it was once referred, and these remains confirm this belief. The Paleonisci, of HKurope [true heterocerques| have never been found below the coal mea- sures, while they extend upward to the copper slate of the zech- stein, or magnesian limestone. In the case before us, we find a species of Palwoniscus accompanied by a fish, the structure of whose tail approaches that of the Pholidophorus, and of other fishes never found below the has. This fact would seem to im- ply for this formation, even a higher situation in the series than that which is now assigned it by geologists.”—Annals, &c., p. 40. The American Association of Geologists and Naturalists at the meeting held in Albany in April, 1848, requested Mr. John H. Redfield to prepare a report on the fossil fishes of the United States. His report was presented to the Association, at New Haven, in May, 1845. It was withheld from publication by its author, on account of the expected visit of Prof. Agassiz to this country, and with a view of commending the whole subject to his examination.—In the review of the fishes of our new red sandstone, so called, the report stated as follows: “New RED SANDSTONE.—-Under this term I include the ex- tensive sandstone formation of the Connecticut river valley ; the small and isolated basin on the Pomperaug river near Southbury, Ct.; the New Jersey Sandstone, extending from the. border of the Hudson river, southwesterly, to the interior of Virginia; and, also, the formation known as the coal rocks of Hastern Vir- ginia.—(Report, p. 4.) ‘All of the fishes hitherto found in these rocks belong to the order GANOIDA, and to the family Lepipoip#.”—Report, p. 5. “Prof. Agassiz has made two subdivisions in this, as in other families of the order Ganoidxe, founded on differences in the structure of the tail. In the first of these, (Heterocerci) the upper lobe of the tail, is vertebrated and is usually longer than the lower, and the scales of the body extend upon the upper lobe nearly or quite to its extremity. The other division, the homo- cerci, have the tail regular, either forked or rounded, and the scales do not extend upon the upper lobe, though in some genera they are slightly prolonged in that direction. The fishes of our sandstone formation above mentioned, would seem to belong to the first of these divisions, or those with heterocercal tails. They do not, however, exhibit this structure in the same degree which obtains in the fishes of the older Kuropean rocks, or even in those of the new red sandstone or magnesian limestone of Eng- land and Germany. ‘The only two genera which have yet been 360 On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. found in our rocks differ somewhat from each other, also, in the degree of heterocercal structure which they present, those spe- cies which, following Prof. Agassiz in P. fultus, I have allotted to the genus Paleoniscus, having the heterocercal structure more decided. But even in these, the tail has a different aspect from the Paleonisct of Europe. In the latter, the upper lobe of the tail seems hardly to partake of the character of a fin, and the lower lobe appears to be only a fin-like appendage of the upper, like a second anal fin, while the scales and no doubt the vertebree extend to the extreme point of the upper lobe.” “The other genus, the Catopterus of our rocks, exhibits the _heterocercal structure in a still more modified degree. So nearly does it approach in this respect some genera classed as homocer- cal fishes, such as Semionotus and Pholidophorus, that in an early memoir published in the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural His- tory, vol. iv, I was led to rank it in that division, subject to a qualifying note. Its relations are however, rather to the hetero- cercal fishes, or perhaps to an intermediate group.” “This point 1s an important one in its bearing upon geo- logical questions, for it 1s now well ascertained that the true heterocercal tail [in the lepidoids] is peculiar to the paleeozoic, and lower mesozoic rocks, no fish of that character having been found higher in the series than the triassic rocks, while the true [strict] homocercal tail does not occur below the has. When therefore we find in the fishes of our sandstone rocks, a struc- ture which seems to be intermediate between the true homocer- cal and the heterocercal divisions of Agassiz, the conclusion seems irresistible that the including rock cannot be older than the triassic, while it must be placed at least as low in the series as the lias or oolite.” Report, pp. 5-6. ‘‘__ Only four species of the genus Caiopterus are yet known; three of which are found in the red sandstone of New England and New Jersey and the fourth in the coal rocks of Eastern Vir- ginia.”* .. Report, p. 7, His descriptions of these four species of Catopterus are found in the report, and were then prior to any known notice or de- scription of these fishes, other than our own, and together with the descriptions of the more numerous species of the genus Ischypterus, are yet withheld from publication, on account of the contemplated arrangements for completing a monograph of the fishes of this formation in the United States. I have thus shown the examinations and conclusions of Mr. J. H. Redfield on these fishes, as first published in 1837, and as found in his report to the American Association in 1845. In the first of these he points out the age of the containing rocks, * Others have since been obtained. On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. | 361 and within the same limits which now appear to result from all the subsequent researches. At the meeting of this Association held in Cincinnati in April, 1851, the present writer made a communication on the Post-Per- mian character of the red sandstone rocks of Connecticut and New Jersey as shown by their fossils. J then. exhibited, to- gether with two species of Voltzia, some specimens of the genus Catopterus from these rocks, showing the homology of their cau- dal structure with that of the Catopterus macrurus from the coal rocks of Hastern Virginia. This was induced in part by the fact that Sir Philip Egerton, in a paper of Sir Charles Lyell, in the Journal of the Geological Society, had separated this Vir- ginia species from its congeners in the New Jersey and Connec- ticut rocks, on the ground that the former belonged to the homo- eercal and the latter to the heterocercal divisions of Prof. Agassiz.* Previous however to this publication of Sir Charles, repeated and careful examinations, with Prof. Agassiz, of the numerous specimens of Catopterus in my possession, collected from the localities of the three different States, had appeared to establish fully their similarity in respect to the structure of the tail. Also, that the Catopteri of all the localities, including Virginia, might continue to be referred to the homocerci, as in the case of several Huropean genera, or that, more properly both they and the other fishes of these rocks might be referred to a distinct and interme- diate division, which is sub-heterocercal in its character, if I may so speak. I therefore reclaim the Dictyopyge of sir Philip Kger- ton, founded on my species C. macrurus, as still belonging to the genus Catopterus. I refer to this matter on the present occasion on account of the important bearing which it has on the geologi- cal age of these fishes, as found in the several states. It may be added in further explanation, that Sir Charles Lyell in the paper referred to, states that “‘the genus Catopterus was instituted by Mr. Redfield for certain species of heterocercal fish from the Connecticut red sandstone.” He seems not to have noticed that the genus was instituted by Mr. J. H. Redfield in 1836 for a homocercal fish, according to the characteristics afforded in the Powssons Hossiles of Agassiz; and he probably alluded only to my own later notices in this Journal, 1841, vol. xhy, p. 27. All the fishes obtained by him from the sandstone of the Con- necticut river are also pronounced heterocercal, while the Vir- ginia fish is stated to be homocercal, and this he supports by the opinions of Prof. Agassiz as given on first seeing his specimens * Sir Charles Lyell On the Structure and Probable Age of the Coal-Field of the James River, near Richmond, Virginia: Jour. of the Geol. Soc., vol. iii, 1847, pp. 275-278. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856. 362 On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. of these fishes in EKurope. Based on this designation, Sir Philip Egerton proposed his new genus Dictyopyge for the C. macrurus of the Virginia rocks. In regard to the other fishes of New England and New Jer- sey, Mr. J. H. Redfield had reluctantly followed the work of Prof. Agassiz in assigning them to the genus Paleoniscus, although this eminent naturalist had then only seen two imperfect speci- mens; but Mr. R. then alluded to their structural affinity with the liassic fishes, as we have seen in his conclusion already quoted, and impliedly in the descriptive portion of his paper. It is well seen, also, in his figure of the P. latus, attached to his paper in the Annals. In my own notices of 1841, referred to above, I suggested that their less heterocercal forms, and the pe- culiar structure of their fins warrant their being placed in a sepa- rate genus. Sir Philip Egerton recognizes the division, as did Prof. Agassiz in 1846, and Sir Philip proposes for the new genus the name Ischypterus. The question to which of the divisions of Agassiz the Catop- terus of Connecticut and this fish of Virginia belong, is simply one of degree. Even if we were to admit a slight difference in this case, 1t could hardly imply the wide separation which has been claimed. Such a marked division, founded on the struc- ture of the tail, cannot depend on the use of aterm, but must be decided by the fishes themselves. In regard to this point of distinction, may I not quote the matured views of Sir Philip Egerton, so well expressed in the Journal of the Geological Society, 1854, p. 868:—‘ Although this character, derived from the organization of the caudal fin, is one of great value and significance in the determination of various genera of fossil fishes, 1t 1s nevertheless necessary, in drawing general conclusions, to be careful not to assign to it - more importance than it is strictly entitled to; for we find, by the comparison of several genera, that it 1s not one of those well defined trenchant characters which can be affirmed to exist or not, as the case may be, but that it is variable in amount, pass- ing from extreme heterocercy to absolute homocercy by a sliding- scale so gradual, that it is (at all events in fossil examples) most cult to define a positive line of demarcation between the two orms, As the terms have hitherto been used, such line of demarca- tion, if it exist, appears best indicated at the division between the palzeozoic and the mesozoic strata; and perhaps in lesser de- gree, at the close of the triassic period. In all our Catoptert the scales of the caudal base terminate near the middle rays of the upper lobe, ‘“‘and not on the upper margin, as in a true heterocerque tail.”* Good figures by Din- * See Egerton as last quoted p. 370. On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 3638 kel of the species C. macrurus of Virginia are given in the above- mentioned paper of Sir Charles Lyell. It has been seen that Mr. J. H. Redfield considers the other fishes of the Connecticut river and New Jersey rocks as more heterocercal in degree than the Catopterus. In some of the species, however, this difference seems less obvious after a close examination of the structure, than it appears at first view. One or two of the species in my possession I think are even more nearly homocercal than the Virginia fish. I desire to add, that two of the Lepidots from the table land of India of which figures are given in the Jour. of the Geol. Society, show very strong resemblances to two or three of my fishes from the sandstone of Connecticut river at Sunderland, to one of which I had proposed the name Ischypterus Marshu. Is it not probable that the vast extent of sandstone and trap in that distant region, is of like age with our Newark group? Already I have ventured to state verbally to the Association, that in the valuable collection of fossils from the coal-field of Deep River in North Carolina, now exhibited by Prof. Emmons, I have recognized several well characterized fragments of the genus Catopterus. A close comparison of these with specimens in my cabinet may perhaps show a difference of species. But my present impression is that of identity with one of the New Jersey species. It would be premature to conjecture how far the new fossils of Prof. Emmons may affect the question of the relative age of these rocks. But when we consider that these fishes evidently belong to fresh water or estuary deposits, as is shown by the entire absence of any remains of large marine fishes, by an almost equal absence of shells, and by the numerous fossilized fragments of vegetation with which the fishes are associated, the chronological evidence afforded by their characteristic organiza- tion would seem to be more determinate than that of saurians, plants, or marine fishes, whose general habitat and power of dis- tribution, enable them to occupy a greater range in the geologi- cal series. P.S. It is proper to add, that having now compared the re- mains of Catopterus of Prof. Emmons’s collection with my own specimens of the genus, I find them scarcely distinguishable from most of those of the New Jersey and Connecticut rocks. Indeed they appear to be identical with C. gracilis. The chief differences appear in the larger size of most of the Carolina specimens which may be due to conditions more favorable to their growth, and in the less flattened condition of the basal por- tion of the strong and elongate front ray of the pectoral fin,— owing, probably, to a nearly equal pressure on all sides, in the carbonaceous pasté or sediment in which they were fossilized. New York, Sept. 12th, 1856. 364 R. Clausius on the Application of the Art. XXVIIL—On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. Cuaustius. [Continued from p. 203. | 27. THe influence which the difference of the pressure in the boiler and in the cylinder exerts upon the work, has been treated probably most completely up to this time in the work of de Pam- bour (Théorie des Machines a4 vapeur), and I may be permitted before I myself take up the subject, to state in advance the most . important points of this mode of treating it, only with a some- what different notation and with the omission of the magnitudes which relate to the friction, in order to be able the more easily to show how far the theory no longer corresponds to our more recent knowledge of heat, and at the same time to connect with it the new mode of treating the subject, which in my opinion must take its place. 28. The two laws mentioned already at the beginning of this paper, which at that time were pretty generally applied to steam form the foundation of de Pambour’s theory. First, the law of Watt, that the sum of the free and latent heat is constant. From this law, the conclusion was drawn, that if a quantity of steam at the maximum density be enclosed in a shell impenetrable to heat, and the cubic contents of this shall be increased or dimin- ished, the steam willin this case be neither over-heated nor partially precipitated, but will remain exactly at the maximum density, and that this would take place quite independently of the mode in which the change of volume may occur, whether the steam had to overcome thereby a pressure corresponding to its expansive force or not. Pambour supposed that the steam be- haved in the same way in the cylinder of the steam engine, inas- much as he did not assume that the particles of water which in this case are mixed with the steam could exert a perceptible changing influence. In order now to be able more nearly to express the connection which exists for steam at the maximum density, between volume and temperature or volume and pressure, Pambour applied in the second place the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac to steam. From these we obtain the equation : 10333. 273 By “27a 100? if we assume with Gay Lussac the volume of a kilogram of steam at 100°, at the maximum density, to be 1,696, and consider that the pressure thereby exerted by one atmosphere upon a square meter is 10,853 kilograms, and if we denote for any other tem- perature #, the volume and the pressure, assuming the same units, (28.) v= 1,696. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 365 by vand p. In this equation we need only substitute for p the known values from the tension series, 1n order to be able to cal- culate for every temperature the correct volume under these suppositions. 29. As, however, the integral I padv plays a principal part in the formulas for the work of the steam engine, 1t was necessary to have the simplest possible formula between v and p alone, in order to be able to calculate this in a convenient manner. The equations, which we should obtain if we were to eliminate. the temperature ¢ from the foregoing equation, by means of one of the empirical formulas for », would prove too complicated, and Pambour therefore proposed to form a special empirical form- ula for this purpose, to which he gave, according to the process of Navier, the following general form (29) eager oe ar in which Band 6 are constants. He now sought to determine these constants in such a manner, that the volumes calculated from this formula corresponded as accurately as possible with those calculated from the previous formula. As this however, is not possible with sufficient accuracy for all the pressures which occur in steam engines, he calculated two different formulas, for machines with and without condensers. The first is as follows: 20000 (29a) YT 200 op! and agrees best with the above formula (28) between 4% and 34 atmospheres, is applicable however also in a somewhat wider in- terval, perhaps between $ and 5 atmospheres. The second formula determined for machines without conden- sers, is on the other hand as follows: (29b) Yea 3020 + p It is most accurate between 2 and 5 atmospheres, and the whole interval of its applicability, extends about from 14 to 10 atmos- heres. : 30. The magnitudes depending upon the dimensions of the steam engine which occur in determining the work, shall here be denoted in the following manner, somewhat different from that of Pambour. Let the whole space which becomes free for the steam during a stroke in the cylinder, including the injurious space, be called v’. Let the injurious space form the fraction « of the whole space, so that thus the injurious space is separated by ev’ and the space described by the surface of the piston by (1—¢) v’. Further let the portion of the whole space which has become = 366 R. Clausius on the Application of the free for the steam up to the moment of cutting off the cylinder from the boiler, including also the injurious space, be denoted by ev’. Hence the space described by the surface of the piston, during the entrance of the steam will be expressed by (e—«)u’ and the space described during the expansion by (1—e)v’. In order now, in the first place, to determine the work done, during the admission of the steam, the active pressure in the cylinder during this time must be known. This is, in any event, smaller than the pressure in the boiler, since otherwise no influx of steam would take place; it cannot however be generally stated how great this difference is, since it not only depends upon the arrangement of the machine, but also upon how wide the engineer has opened the valve in the steam pipe, and upon the velocity with which the machine moves. This difference may vary between wide limits by changing these conditions. The pressure in the cylinder also is not necessarily constant during the whole time of the influx, because both the velocity of the piston and the magnitude of the influx opening left free by the steam valve or slide valve are variable. Pambour assumes with reference to the last condition, that the mean pressure which is to be brought into the calculation in de- termining the work, can with sufficient accuracy be supposed equal to the pressure which is exerted in the cylinder at the end of the influx, at the moment of cutting off from the boiler. Though I do not consider it advantageous to introduce directly into the general formulas such an assumption, which is made only for the sake of numerical calculation in the absence of more certain data, yet I must here follow his process in setting forth his theory. Pambour determines the pressure which takes place in the cylinder at the moment of the cut-off by means of the relation established by him between volume and pressure, inasmuch as he thereby supposes that the quantity of steam passing into the cylinder, during the unit of time and consequently also, during one stroke of the piston, is known by special observations. We will as before denote by J/ the whole mass which enters the cyl- inder during a stroke of the piston, and that portion of it which is in the form of steam by m. As this mass, of which Pambour only considers the portion which is in the form of steam, fills the space ev’ at the moment of the cut-off, we have, if we denote the pressure at this moment by p, according to equation, (29) m.B whence we have (30.) Pree Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 367 If we multiply this quantity by the space described by the surface of the piston up to the same moment, namely (e—8) v’, we obtain for the first part of the work, the expression : (31.) W,=mB.— —v'(e-2)b, The law according to which the pressure varies during the ex- pression which now follows, is also given by equation (29). Let the variable volume at any moment be denoted by v, and the corresponding pressure by p, and we have m.B 5 p= We must substitute this expression in the integral / pdv and and then execute the integration from v=ev' to v=v' by. which means we obtain as the second part of the work (32.) W,=mB log — 0! (1—e)b. In order to determine the negative work done during the return of the piston, by the counter pressure, the counter pressure itself must be known. Without for the present entering upon the question how this counter pressure is related to the pressure which takes place in the condenser, we will denote the mean counter pressure by p,, so that the work done by it, is repre- sented by (33.) W,—=—1'(1-€) py. Finally, there still remains the work which must be applied to force the quantity of liquid M, again into the boiler. Pambour has not specially considered this work, but has included it in the friction of the machine. As I have however, taken it into con- sideration in my formulas, in order to have the cyclus of the op- erations complete, I will add it here also for the sake of a more easy comparison. If p, denotes the pressure in the boiler, and , the pressure in the condenser, this work is represented as a whole by (34.) Wy == Mel Pua); as is deduced from equations (21) and (22) established in the ex- ample formerly considered. For our present case, in which we understand by p, not the pressure in the condenser itself, but in the part of the cylinder which is in connection with the con- denser. This expression it is true, is not quite accurate; as how- ever in consequence of the smallness of the quantity the whole expression has so small a value that it scarcely deserves consid- eration, we may neglect the more freely a small inaccuracy in comparison with the small value, and will therefore here also, re- tain the expression in the same form. = % 368 R. Clausius on the Application of the By the addition of these four single quantities of work, we obtain the whole work done during the circular process, namely, (35) W'=mB(— + log 2)—v'(l-2) 6-+p.)—Mo(p,-Po). 31. It is only necessary to divide the foregoing value by m, if we wish finally to refer the work to the unit of weight of steam, instead of to a single stroke of the piston, during which the quantity of steam m is acting. For this purpose, we will denote by 8, the fraction ei which represents the relation of the whole mass which passes into the cylinder, to the portion of it in the form of steam, and which is consequently somewhat greater than 1; furthermore by v the fraction ~, that is the space which is offered on the whole to the unit of weight of steam ; Rca oe in the cylinder, and by the fraction —- or the work correspond- ing to the unit of weight of steam. Then we have (x11.) W=B(— + log “)- V(1-¢) (6+ p,)—lo(p, -Po): In this equation, there ocurs only one term which depends upon the volume v, and it contains v as a factor. As this term is neg- ative, it follows that the work which we can obtain by means of the unit of weight of steam, under otherwise equal circumstances, is greatest when the volume which is presented to the steam in the cylinder is the least possible. ‘The smallest value of the vol- ume to which, if we can never quite reach it, we can yet approx- imate more and more, is that which we find when we assume that the machine moves so slowly, or that the influx pipe is so wide that the same pressure p, takes place in the cylinder as in the boiler. ‘T'his case gives thus the maximum work. If the | rate of motion be greater with an equal influx of steam, or if with an equal rate of motion, the influx of steam be less, we ob-. tain in both cases a smaller work by means of the same quantity of steam. 33. Before we proceed from this point to consider the same se- ries of processes in their connection, according to the mechanical theory of heat, it will be advantageous to consider beforehand one of them singly, which still requires a special investigation to fix a priori the results relating to it, namely: the influx of the steam into the injurious space, and into the cylinder, when it has here to overcome a pressure less than that with which it is driven from the boiler. I can proceed in this investigation according to Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 369 the same principles which I have already applied to the treat- ment of several similar cases in a former paper.* The steam coming from the boiler passes first into the injuri- ous space, compresses here the steam still present from the pre- vious stroke of the piston, fills the space which thereby becomes free, and acts then by pressure against the piston, which, accord- ing to our assumption, in consequence of a comparatively small load, yields so quickly that the steam cannot follow fast enough to attain in the cylinder the same density as in the boiler. Under such circumstances, if only saturated steam passed from the boiler, this would be overheated in the cylinder, inasmuch as the living force of the motion of influx is here converted into heat; as however the steam carries some finely divided water with it, a part of this will be evaporated by the excess of heat, and will thereby retain the remaining steam in a state of satura- tion. We must now propose to ourselves the problem: given, the initial condition of the whole mass to be considered, as well that already contained in the injurious space, as also that newly en- tered from the boiler, further, the quantity of work which is done during the influx by the pressure acting upon the piston, and finally the pressure in the cylinder at the moment of cutting it off from the boiler, it is required to determine how much of the mass in the cylinder is in the state of steam at this moment. 33. Let the mass in the injurious space, before the influx which for the sake of generality shall be assumed to be partly fluid and partly in the form of steam, be called w, and the portion of it, which is in the form of steam u,. The pressure of this steam and the absolute temperature which it possesses may for the present be denoted by p, and 7’,, without meaning to say that these are exactly the same values which hold good for the con- denser also. The pressure and the temperature in the boiler * On the behavior of steam in expanding under different circumstances, these An- nals, vol. 82, p. 263. Helmholtz, in his report in the progress of physics, published by the Physical Society of Berlin, for the year 1850 and ’51, ‘p. 582, says with re- spect to this article and a notice connected with it and communicated in the Philo- sophical Magazine, that in his opinion the same is incorrect in principle, in many points. I have not been able to understand however, the reasons which he assigns ‘for this. Views are ascribed to me-which I never had, and propositions expressed in opposition to them which I have never contested, and which form in fact partly the foundation of my own works on the mechanical theory of heat, while the whole is treated in so general a manner that it has been impossible for me to determine how far these views follow from my words or these propositions are to overthrow my conclusions. I do not therefore see myself obliged to defend my former works against this blame. As however, the developmant which follows here rests as above mentioned, entirely upon the same views by which I was at that time guided, Helm- holtz will perhaps find in it also the same errorsin principle. For this case, I await his objections, only I would then desire him to go into the matter in a somewhat more special manner. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856, 47 370 R. Clausius on the Application of the shall be called as before p,, 7',, the mass flowing from the boiler into the cylinder Mf, and the part of it which isin the form of steam m,. It is not necessary, as already mentioned, that the pressure exerted upon the piston during the influx, be constant. We will call this pressure the mean pressure, and will denote it by p‘, by which the space described by the surface of the piston during the period of the influx must be multiplied, in order to obtain the same work which is done by the variable pressure. Let the pressure which actually takes place in the cylinder at the moment of the cut-off, be denoted by p, and the temperature by T’,, and let finally the quantity, with the determination of which we. have to do, namely, the portion of the whole mass now pres- ent in the cylinder M+, which is in the form of steam, be rep- resented by m,. To determine this quantity, let us consider the mass M+, in any manner brought back to its initial condition. The vapor- ized portion m,, 1s condensed in the cylinder by the downward pressure of the piston, whereby it is supposed that the piston can also penetrate into the injurious space. Let at the same time so much heat be in any manner withdrawn from the mass, that its temperature 7, remains constant. Then the portion m, of the whole fluid mass is pressed back into the boiler where it again as- sumes the original temperature 7’. The same condition is thereby restored in the boiler as before the influx, inasmuch as it is of no importance whether exactly the same mass, m, which was pre- viously in the form of steam, is so now again, or whether an equally large other mass has taken its place. The remaining por- tion u is first cooled down, in the fluid condition from 7, to 7’, and at this temperature the portion “, is converted into steam, by which the piston moves so far that this steam can again assume its original space. 34. The mass M+, has consequently gone through a com- plete circular process, to which we may now apply the theorem that the sum of all the quantities of heat taken up by the mass, during a circular process, must be equivalent to the whole exter- nal work performed in it. The following quantities of heat are taken up, one after another. 1. In the boiler, where the mass is heated from the temper- ature 7’, to 7’, and the portion m, must be converted into 1} steam at the latter temperature : y m,1,-+ Mec(T,- 72). 2. During the condensation of the portion m, at the temper- ature 77, : safely Pee tiie? 8. During the cooling of the portion « from 7, to T,: Fae Ne (2. Sr5F uM or 4. During the evaporation of the portion “,, at the tempera- ture 7,: bie 0° 0° Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 71 The whole quantity of heat which may be called Q, 1s conse- quently : (36.) Q=m yr, —mMmyrgt Me(T,-—T2) + &o 79 —ue (T2- To). The quantities of work are found in the following manner: 1. In order to determine the space described by the surface of the piston during the influx, we know that the whole space oc- cupied by the mass 1/+4, at the end of this time, is My Uy +(M+eI)o. From this the injurious space must be subtracted. As this was filled in the beginning at the temperature 7’, for the mass u, of which the portion “, was in the form of steam, it may be ex- pressed by [by Ug + UO. If we subtract this quantity from the previous one and multiply the remainder by the mean pressure, p’,, we obtain as the first work: (mo Uy + Mo-", uy) p. 2. The work, by the condensation of the mass m,, is: Ba a ae 3. By forcing back the mass m into the boiler —Mop,. 4, By the evaporation of the portion #, : Ho Uo Po- By the addition of these four quantities, we obtain for the whole work W, the expression, (37.) Wamu, (P1-P2)—-Mo(p,-Pi)—Ho Mo (P1-Po)- If we substitute these values of Y, and W, in equation (1), namely, Od W, and bring the terms containing m, together on one side, we have (x111.) Mo[T 2+ Aus(p\—P2)|=m,7,4+Me(T,-T,)+ Mo? —Ue( T'.—T,) +A My Uy (P1-Po) +A Mo (p,-p3). | By means of this equation, we can calculate the quantity m, from the quantities supposed to be known. 85. In those cases in which the mean pressure p’ is considera- bly greater than the final pressure p,, for instance, if we assume that during the greater part of the period of influx, nearly the same pressure has taken place in the cylinder as in the boiler, and that the pressure has first diminished to the lesser value p,, by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder, it may happen that we find for m, a value which is smaller than m,+ “,, that consequently a portion of the steam originally present is precipitated. If on the other hand, p{ be but little greater or in fact smaller than p,, we find for m, a value which is greater than m,+e,. This last is to be considered as the rule in the steam engine, and holds good in particular also for the special case assumed by Pambour that pi=p,. . 372 R. Clausius on the Application of the We have consequently arrived at results which differ essen- tially from Pambour’s views. While he assumes one and the same law for the two different kinds of expansion which occur in succession in the steam engine, according to which the steam, originally present neither increases nor diminishes, but always remains exactly at a maximum density, we have found two dif- ferent equations, which permit us to recognize an opposite rela- tion. According to the equation just found (x11), new steam must still arise in the first expansion during the influx, and in the further expansion, after the cutting off from the boiler, whereby the steam does the full work corresponding to its ex- pansive force, a portion of the steam present must be precipita- ted according to the equation (VII) already developed. As these: two opposite actions of increasing and diminishing the steam, which must also exert a contrary influence upon the quantity of work done by the machine, partly counteract each other, the same final result may occur approximately under certain circumstances, as according to Pambour’s more simple assumption. We must not however, therefore neglect to take into consideration the dif- ference found, particularly when we desire to determine in what manner a change in the arrangement, or in the working of the | steam engine, acts upon the quantity of its work. | 36. By the help of the quantities of heat cited singly im § 34, we may according to what is stated in §8, easily determine the uncompensated transformation which occurs during the expan- sion, by applying the integral which.occurs in the equation dQ a Alien to these quantities of heat. The communication of the quantities of heat m,7r,—™,7, and “,7,, occurs at constant temperatures, namely 7, 7,, T,, ° and these portions of the integral are therefore: i wel g Molo - d ——. Pp ated Sar ye Fér the portions of the integral arising from the quanties of heat Mc(T,-T,) and —uc(T, — T,), we find, according to the process already applied in § 23, the expressions : T, ii Me log 7, and —wc log T. } By putting the sum of these quantities in the place of the above integral, we obtain for the uncompensated transformation, the value : ? m Senay = — (38.) ft + 37. We may now return again to the complete circular pro- cess which takes place during the working of the machine, and m Ho No Mas 3 “a ?; T, Mc log T, T. +- uc log T. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 378 consider as before the particular portions of the same in succes- sion. The mass UV flows from the boiler in which the pressure p, is assumed, into the cylinder, the part m, as steam, and the remain- der as liquid. Let the mean pressure acting in the cylinder dur- ing this time be denoted as above by p/{, and the final pressure by p,. tite steam now expands until its pressure has sunk from p, to a given value, p, and consequently its temperature from 7’, to T,. The cylinder is thereupon put into communication with the condenser in which the pressure p, is exerted and the piston makes the whole motion just completed again in the opposite direction. The counter pressure which it thereby undergoes, is during a somewhat more rapid motion greater than p,, and we will therefore, to distinguish it from this value, denote the mean counter pressure by p’,. The steam which remains at the end of the motion of the pis- ton in the injurious space, which must be considered for the next stroke, is under a pressure which in like manner need be neither equal to p, nor p! and may therefore be denoted by p”,. It may be greater or smaller than p{ according as the cutting off from the condenser takes place somewhat before or after the end of the motion of the piston, inasmuch as the steam in the first place is compressed somewhat further, in the last case, on the contrary, has time to expand somewhat more by the partial influx into the condenser. Finally the mass / must be brought back from the condenser into the boiler, whereby as before the pressure p, acts to produce the effect and the pressure p, must be overcome. 38. The quantities of work done in these processes are repre- sented by expressions quite similar to those in the simpler case already considered, only that the indices of the letters are changed in a manner which is easily understood, and the quan- tities which relate to the injurious space must be added. We thus obtain the following equations : For the period of influx according to § 84, in which however wu", must be written instead of w,. (39.) W (m2 tg +Mo—p, v9) p;. For the expansion from the pressure p, to the pressure p,, ac- cording to equation (1x) if M/-+ is put in the place of J: 1 (40.) W. SM 5 Us Py— Maz P2+— Z| ms T2- Mgr ,t(M+mu)c( T',-T5) | For the return of the piston, in which the space described by the surface of the piston is equal to the whole space occupied by the mass M+ under the pressure p,, less the injurious space represented by My ut uo. (41) Wea=—(m, U3+ Mo—pu, u",) p’o. 374 W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mexico. For the forcing back of the mass J into the boiler: (42.) W,=—Me(p,—Po)- The whole work is therefore: 1 (43.) W'= [Mere —ms,7,+(M+e)e(T,- 7.) | + M2 U2 (P',—Pa) him st 3(P3—P'o)—MO( Py P's +P o—Po) Mot o( P's —P'o) The masses m, and m, which occur herein may be found from equations (XIII) and (VII), in which it is only necessary to substitute in the first the value p’”, in the place of p, to change in corresponding manner the quantities 7',, 7, and u,, and to in- troduce in the last the sum M@+vu in the place of MI will not, however, here completely execute the elimination of the two quantities m, and m, which is possible by these equations, but will only substitute its value for one of them m,, because it is more advantageous for calculation to consider the equation so obtained together with the two already determined. The system of equations which serves to determine the work of the steam engine, is therefore in its most general form : ao JD [ Ww =sl"1 —Mr,+Mc(T,-T;) ur, —-ue(T,—-T",) +m5x3(Ps-P'o) FH oH (2! —B" 9) — Ma (p', —Po)- Mol 2+Aue(p! -P2)=m yt +Me(T,-T,) 4M" 9He(T2-2"9) + At yu" (p", —p" 9) +AMo(p,—p',) M3P, MoV o DB T ig +(M-+ 1“) ¢ log Bey XIV, (To be coneluded.) ArT. XXIX.—Hxamination of the Meteoric Iron from Xiquipilco, Mexico; by W. J. TAYLOR.* THE meteoric iron from Xiquipilco, Mexico, appears to have been first mentioned in the Gazeta de Mexico in 1784. Itis stated there that small pieces of native iron, from a few ounces to fifty pounds in weight were very numerous, which were sought for by the Indians after heavy rains, who used them for manu- facturing agricultural implements. In a dissertation on metallic meteorites by Prof. W. S. Clark, the following notices of its literature are given:—Ann. des Mines Ser. 1, t. 2, p. 887. Gazeta de Mexico, 1784-5, vol. 1, pp. 146, 200. Klaproth Beitrige zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineral Korper, B. 4, s. 101. Sonnenschmit, Beschriebung der vorzug- * From the Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, vol. viii, No. 3. W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mexico. 375 lichsten Bergwerke. Reviere de Mexico 1804, p. 192 and 288. Chladni (vu. F. M. s. 336) Partsch, (D. M. s. 99.) In the examination made by M. Berthier he failed to detect the presence of cobalt, but it is mentioned by Prof. Clark that Manross had found it in a specimen from the cabinet of Prof. Wohler; my examination confirms that of Mr. Manross. To the kindness of W.S. Vaux, Esq., | am indebted for the material for this investigation; Mr. Vaux has in his magnificent cabinet the principal portion of a mass which weighed over ten pounds. It was originally about six inches long, with an aver- age diameter of three inches; the lump was oblong with rounded ends, the whole being covered with a thin crust of Jimonite. | A cross section cut from this lump has been carefully polished and etched by strong nitric acid, which gives a most beautiful surface of about three and a half inches in length, by two and a half in breadth, covered with the greatest complexity of wid- mannstattian figures which almost defy description. The surface is crossed by bands about one-tenth to one-six- teenth of an inch in breadth; these apparent bands are cross sections of different planes, as is readily perceived by their dif- ferent refractive powers. On changing the position of the specimen, those that are a bright silvery white in one direction, become a dull grey in an- other, and vice versa. There are several systems of bands, which preserve a paral- lelism among themselves and cross other systems at various angles, forming trapezoids, rhombs and triangles. ‘These several fields and their characteristic etchings will be described in detail at some future time. Along the bands or planes, thin lamine of schreibersite have been observed, as in other meteoric irons. . Imbedded in one side of the large lump (just described) was a flobule of pyrrhotine, which looks as if it had been dropped into the iron when it was in a semi-fluid state. This globule ap- pears to have been about an inch in diameter: it was in part decomposed; but a small portion of the mineral was separated sufficiently pure for the determination of its specific gravity and analysis. On dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, thin laminee of schreibersite separated with minute portions of chromic iron. Through the kindness of Dr. F. A. Genth, I have been per- mitted to make the following analysis in his laboratory : Pyrrhotine dissolved in nitric acid, gave— No.1. Sulphur, - - - : 33°76 per cent. Tron, . - - - - 57°95 7 Nickel, - . - - 6°70 = Cobalt, - : : D6 i: Silicon, - - . - 05 : Phosphorus, - . : “2 “2D 9927 = 376 W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mexico. No. 2 dissolved in hydrochloric acid, gave Iron, - E - . 58°25 per cent. A. residue aened which dissolved after being treated with hydrochloric acid and ‘chlorate of potash : it consisted of Copper, - : - - 0-12 ‘per cent, The remainder consisted principally of chromic iron, with a small portion of schreibersite. The specific gravity was found to be 4° 829. The ratio of sulphur to the metals was found to be Sulphur, 2°102, Tron, 2-066, Nickel and Cobalt, 0-245, } se It im be seen that the composition corresponds with that of pyrrhotine, considering its formula to be Fes, if we disregard the few impurities which were found with it. The meteoric iron was first treated in a flask with hydro- chloric acid, and the gas evolved was passed through a solution of ammonia chlorid of copper, but not a trace of sulphur could be detected in this manner. In the fifth supplement to Rammelsberg’s Handwérterbuch der chemischen Mineralogie, this meteoric iron is mentioned as pas- sive, experiments having been made by Prof. Wohler; but the piece belonging to Mr. Vaux is evidently active, throwing down metallic copper from a neutral solution of its sulphate. This experiment was repeated with great care with confirmatory re- sults. No. 1 was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and a slight precipi- tate was obtained by hydrosulphuric acid, which on a careful examination before the blowpipe, was found to be copyer with a trace of tin. Tron, - - - - 90°72 per cent. Nickel, - - - 8°49 Ma Cobalt, - - ‘44 dg Schreibersite, Chromic iron, ttle 38 a Silicon, - - - pas 4 Phosphorus, - - - 18 5 100°46 The phosphorus was estimated in a separate portion which was first oxydized by nitric acid and fused in a platinum cruci- ble with carbonate of soda. No. 2 was dissolved in nitric acid. ii cave, iron, 90°37 per cent. Nickel, 7.79 a Insoluble residue, 1:91 * 100.07 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. 377 Art. XXX.—On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays ; by EiisHa Foote. (Read before the Amer. Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug. 23, 1856.) THE experiments here detailed were instituted for the pur- pose of investigating the heat in the Sun’s rays. Two instruments have been used for this purpose. One was Leshie’s differential thermometer. Both bulbs of it were black- ened by holding them in the smoke of burning pitch. When experimenting one was shaded, the other was exposed to the direct action of the sun’s rays; and as both were thus equally subject to all other influences, the result was not affected by them. Generally, however, I have found it more convenient to use two mercurial thermometers, and note their difference. Two small and very delicate instruments were procured as nearly alike as possible. The stems of both were attached to the same plate about two inches apart, and the scales were marked upon it in juxtaposition, so that the eye could see the indications of both at the same time. Both bulbs were blackened as in the other instrument. It was used in the same manner. The tempera- tures in the sun and in the shade were noted, and their difference was taken as equivalent to the indications of the differential thermometer. The question that first arises is, does the difference between the shaded and exposed bulbs afford a correct measure of the heat in the sun’s rays? ‘To this point I would ask attention be- fore proceeding to the experiment. The theory of the differential thermometer was accurately in- vestigated by Leslie. In one of the foci of two parabolic re- flectors he placed a tin canister which was heated or cooled by putting in hquids of different temperatures or frigorific mixtures. In the other, the heat was received on one of the bulbs of his differential thermometer: and under all circumstances, the in- dications of the instrument were found to be accurately propor- tional to the differences between the temperatures of the canis- ter and those of the surrounding air. | I have varied these experiments by keeping the canister at the uniform heat of boiling water in different temperatures of the air, and by substituting other sources of heat, and have always found the results to accord with those obtained by the distin- guished philosopher to whom I have referred. The principles of radiation lead to the same result; for while the differential thermometer receives heat from the canister, it at the same time radiates it to surrounding bodies, and that in pro- SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856, 48 378 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. portion or nearly so to the difference between its temperature and that of the medium in which it is placed. I regard it therefore as well established that the differential thermometer affords a correct measurement of the differences be- tween the heat of the canister and that of the surrounding air. These differences may evidently be varied in two ways: by changing either— Ist. The heat of the canister ; or— 2dly. The temperature of the air. An increase or diminution in the heat of the canister would directly increase or diminish the differences; whilst an increase in the temperature of the air would diminish the difference until an equality between the two was obtained. If the temperature of the air were uniform and the changes were those of the canis- ter alone, the instrument measuring the differences would cor- rectly indicate those changes. But if the heat of the canister were uniform and that of the air were varied, then would the in- strument equally indicate those changes, but in a contrary direc- tion. In case the heat of both the canister and the air was varied at the same time, if we knew the change in one and its effects upon the instrument, we could easely deduce the changes in the other. Suppose, for example, an increase of ten degrees on the scale of the instrument and an elevation of five degrees in the temperature of the air; the effect of the latter having been to depress the thermometer five degrees, and the canister having not only overcome that effect but imcreased the indications ten degrees, the sum of the two or fifteen degrees would be the real change which had taken place in the heat of the camister. Had there been a depression in the temperature of the air, it obvi- ously should be subtracted from the indications of the instru- ment to obtain the desired measurement. It is upon these principles that | have applied the differential thermometer to measure the comparative heat in the sun’s rays. One of its bulbs received their direct action in the same way that it received the rays proceeding from the canister. ‘The tem- perature of the air was at the same time obtained by a common thermometer. An increase was added to, and a diminution sub- tracted from, the indications of the instrument to obtain the real changes in the heat of the rays proceeding from the sun. My first experiment was of the simplest kind. It was a win- ter’s day. The differential thermometer was placed on the out- side of a window where the temperature was below the freezing point. ‘The effect measured by the scale (which merely divided the stem into equal parts) was 53°. It was then placed on the inside of the window where the temperature was about 70°, and to my surprise the effect rose to 115°. The experiment was many times repeated with similar results, although varying On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. 379 ] some in amount from the different degrees of brightness in the sun. The change in the temperature of the air was still to be added, and the conclusion seemed to be irresistible, that the sun’s rays in passing into the heated room acquired a temperature that they did not derive from the sun. The experiment was next repeated with different temperatures of the room, and it was found that the intensity of the rays de- pended upon the heat of the room. Indeed in the coldest weather in winter I could impart to them a power which belonged to a summer’s sun. At a later period when the circumstances were changed and the heat on the outside had become greatest, the indications of the instrument were reversed. The high temperature of the summer rays was in a great measure lost or dissipated on enter- ing into a cool room. There they had no greater power than had been found at similar temperatures in the winter. For the purpose of a more accurate investigation of the sub- ject, I procured a glass shade or receiver about ten inches in di- ameter and twenty-two in height. A copper base was adapted to it with a groove around the outer edge into which the receiver fitted; and when it was filled with dry ashes the point was thereby rendered sufficiently air-tight. It was supported by legs so high that a spirit lamp could be placed under it, and any re- quired temperature given to the air within. A second receiver of the same size was sometimes used for the purpose of simultaneous comparison. The air within it was cooled by inserting a tin canister filled with frigorific mixtures. The thermometers were supported within the receivers, and thus at the same time the same rays could be tested in the opposite extremes of temperatures. I subjoin, as an example, the following table (p. 880) contain- ing the results of an experiment made in February last, at eight o'clock in the morning. It was a clear day and the sun shone through a window into the room where the instruments were placed. The first observation was the temperature of the room and in the sun upon a mercurial thermometer. The lamp was placed under the receiver, and as the temperature of the air was grad- ually increased, the effect was noted until the heat in the sun had. attained the highest limit of the thermometer. The fourth col- umn contains the differences between the thermometer in the shade and the one in the sun. ‘The fifth column shows the true relative heat of the sun’s rays at the different temperatures. It was obtained as before explained by adding to the differences the increase in the temperature of the air. Several observations may be made in regard to the results in the table. 380 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. Relative heat of No. of obs. Temp. of air. Temp. in sun. Diff. sun’s rays. 1 40 46 6 6 2 44 50 6 10 3 48 56 8 16 4 50 60 10 20 5 54 66 12 26 6 58 70 12 30 q 63 80 17 40 8 70 90 20 50 9 78 100 22 60 10 83 106 23 66 11 88 110 22 70 12 98 120 22 80 13 102 124 22 84 14 108 130 22 90 ist. That the heat in the sun’s rays is not uniform, such as would proceed .from a great heated body of uniform intensity, nor is it such as was received from the canister, when kept at the same degree of heat, but that it varies and is dependent upon the temperature of the air. 2ndly. That the effects of the sun’s rays upon the thermometer at the different degrees of heat in the receiver is the same that has usually been observed at similar temperatures in the open air. Itis easy by changing the heat within the receiver, to 1mi- tate the power of the sun’s rays that has been observed at any time or in any place; indeed at the same time, the same rays may have in one receiver the burning heat of a summer’s sun, and in the other only the feeble action of winter. 8dly. It appears that heat does not travel along with the rays of light as has been usually supposed, but that it is received, or parted with, lost or acquired, according to the temperature of the place that the rays illuminate. The same rays that within the receiver have the high intensity belonging to summer, on passing to the outside, are reduced again to a winter’s temperature. In view of these results it seems to me to accord better with the facts to attribute to the sun’s rays, perhaps to all light, an action of some kind on such heat as they come in contact with, producing thereby the effects that we have been accustomed to attribute to an enormous temperature in the sun. Each planet may be supposed to possess its own atmosphere of heat: this will be affected by the sun’s light as the heat within the receiver was affected; but they need not be frozen by their great dis- tance, nor burned by their near approach to the great luminary. It becomes an interesting and important enquiry, to ascertain the circumstances that affect the action of light on heat. One of the most obvious is, that the amount of action de- pends upon the quantity of light. The clearness of the atmos- phere always affects the experiment, making it somewhat difii- cult to compare observations taken at different times. A strong light obtained by reflection or otherwise, always increased the On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. : 381 effect. But the most striking results were obtained by concen- trating the rays with a lens. One was placed in the receiver with its focus directed upon an additional thermometer, the second and third columns in the following table contain the tem- peratures of the air and in the sun, and the fourth, the heat in the focus, while the air in the receiver was heated as before. The atmosphere at the time was not entirely clear. No. of obs./Temp. of air. Pomp: in sun.|Heat in focus. 1 16 82 104 2 78 88 114 3 80 90 120 | 4 84 96 130 beg 90 102 138 ha 100 110 148 rf 104 114 152 The burning glass was then so arranged that being within the receiver its focus was on the outside. The result was as follows: No. of obs.|Temp. of air.|Temp. in sun.|Heat in focua. 1 44 50 60 51 60 60 3 58 68 62 4 62 72 62 5 73 83 60 6 96 106 58 Then the burning glass was placed on the outside of the re- ceiver and so arranged that its focus should be on the inside, and the effect was the same as if both glass and focus had been on the inside. It will be observed that the effect of the burning glass is sim- ply to increase the results before obtained. Its power depends upon the temperature of the place at which the light is concen- trated. That no heat travels with the light is rendered more manifest. The increased temperature of the rays on the inside had no effect at their focus on the outside. The power of the burning glass seems therefore to depend on two considerations: 1st, the amount of hight concentrated, 2ndly, the amount of heat on which it acts. Those who have heretofore sought its best effects have, it seems to me, too much neglected the latter consideration. Its greatest power is to be obtained by concentrating the greatest amount of hght on the highest degree of artificial heat. The combination of the two may perhaps have important practical applications. The chemist may possibly produce new results by adding to the highest resources of artificial heat the powerful agency of con- centrated light. The subject is unfinished, and it is my intention to resurhe it on some future occasion. 382 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. | ArT. XXXI.—-Circumstances affecting the Heat of the Sun’s Rays ; by Eunice Foore. (Read before the American Association, August 23d, 1856.) My investigations have had for their object to determine the different circumstances that affect the thermal action of the rays of light that proceed from the sun. Several results have been obtained. First. The action increases with the density of the air, and is diminished as it becomes more rarified. The experiments were made with an air-pump and two cylin- drical receivers of the same size, about four inches in diame- ter and thirty in length. In each were placed two thermometers, and the air was exhausted from one and condensed in the other. After both had acquired the same temperature they were placed in the sun, side by side, and while the action of the sun’s rays rose to 110° in the condensed tube, it attained only 88° in the other. I had no means at hand of measuring the degree of con- densation or rarefaction. The observations taken once in two or three minutes, were as follows : Ah, SO ee Exhausted Tube NS ee Kas Condensed Tube. Lee In shade. In sun. i: In shade. a In sun. 46 80 | 45 80 6 | 82 48 95 80 82 | 80 | 100 83 86 82 105 S488 | 85 ) 2a This circumstance must affect the power of the sun’s rays in different places, and contribute to produce their feeble action on the summits of lofty mountains. Secondly. The action of the sun’s rays was found to be greater in moist than in dry air. In one of the receivers the air was saturated with moisture— in the other it was dried by the use of chlorid of calcium. Both were placed in the sun as before and the result was as follows : Dry Air. A Damp Air. In Shade. 4 In sun. Tn shade. In sun. Pat. 15 15 | 15 15 78 88 8 90 82 | 102 | 82 106 82 104. 82 110 82 [ale a0 82 114 88 bie 108, 92 | 120 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 383 The high temperature of moist air has frequently been ob- served. Who has not experienced the burning heat of the sun that precedes a summer’s shower? ‘The isothermal lines will, I think, be found to be much affected by the different degrees of moisture in different places. Thirdly. The highest effect of the sun’s rays I have found to be in carbonic acid gas. One of the receivers was filled with it, the other with com- mon air, and the result was as follows: In Common Air. | In Carbonic Acid Gas. i In shade. In sun. In shade. In sun, 80 90 | 80 | 90 81 94. 84 100 80 99 | 84 | 110 81 100 85 120 The receiver containing the gas became itself much heated— very sensibly more so than the other—and on being removed, it was many times as long in cooling. An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature; and if as some suppose, at one period of its his- tory the air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at pres- ent, an increased temperature from its own action as well as from increased weight must have necessarily resulted. On comparing the sun’s heat in different gases, I found it to be in hydrogen gas, 104°; in common air, 106°; in oxygen gas, 108°; and in carbonic acid gas, 125°. | Art. XXXIT—Review of a portion of the Geological Map of the United States and British Provinces by Jules Marcou ;* by WIL- LIAM P. BLAKE. GEOLOGICAL maps of the United States published in Hurope and widely circulated among Huropean geologists, are necessarily regarded by us with no small degree of attention and curiosity. This is more especially true, when such maps embrace regions of which the geography has only recently been made known and the geology has never before been laid down on a map with any approach to accuracy. The recent geological map and profile by M. J. Marcou, which has appeared in the Annales des Mines and in the Bulletin of * Carte Géologique des Etats-Unis et des Provinces Anglaises de ? Amérique du Nord par Jules Marcou. Annales des Mines, 5¢ Série, T. vii, p. 329. Published also with the following : Résumé explicatif dune carte géologique des Etats-Unis et des provinces an- glaises de ?Amérique du Nord, avec un profil géologique allant de la vallée du Mississippi aux cotes du Pacifique, et une planche de fossiles, par M. Jules Marcou Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. Mai, 1855, p. 813. 384 Marcou's Geological Map of the United States. the Geological Society of France, presents us, in addition to the geology of the Atlantic States, a view of the geology of the broad and comparatively unknown region between the Mississippi and the Pacific. Representing regions which have not been visited by the person making it, such a map is necessarily a work of compilation, inference and generalization, and in the present state of our knowledge, some errors are to be expected. I will not undertake to say how far the author has faithfully used the means in his power for making a good geological map, but as there are errors too important to pass unnoticed, I will simply point out those which are most glaring and most likely to mislead foreign geologists. I shall confine myself solely to the western part beyond the Mississippi.* Commencing on the Pacific coast, the peninsula of San Fran- cisco 1s represented as composed of erupted and metamorphic rocks, being colored the same as the Sierra Nevada and Appa- lachians. The rocks of that peninsula, and on both sides of the Golden Gate, are chiefly sandstone and shale, and the same for- mation extends along the shores of the Bay to and beyond San José. Not only the extent and position, but the lithological characters of these rocks are discussed in a published report,t which was in the hands of the author of the map previous to its publication. ‘The representation of the granitic rocks is not confined to the end of the peninsula, but is continued southward to the western shores of the Tulare lakes where the formations are chiefly miocene tertiary, the eruptive rocks scarcely ap- pearing. The promontory called Point Pinos, which forms the headland of the Bay of Monterey, is represented as tertiary, while a por- phyritic granite constitutes the whole point and forms the coast- line south to the Bay of San Carlos, and is probably continuous southward to San Luis Obispo; forming a high and unbroken line of coast, all of which is colored tertiary on the map. Cast- ing the eye further south, we find the color denoting the erup- tive and metamorphic rocks again usurping the place which should be colored tertiary, at Point Conception, which consists of beds of conglomerate and sandstone. The broad alluvial tract at the head of the Gulf of California —the Colorado desert—is made to extend nearly due north and parallel with the Colorado to the Soda Lake. The published description of this valley gives its direction as northwest and southeast, extending to the foot of San Bernardine Mountain. * A former map by M. Marcou, published at Boston a little over two years since, was reviewed in vol. xvii, of this Journal. The present map is in part open to the same criticisms. + Preliminary Geological Report on the Pacific Railroad Route, surveyed by Lieut, R. S. Williamson in California, House Doc., 129, Washington, D. C., Jan. 1855. Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 385 The extensive coal-fields of Puget Sound and the Coast of Oregon are represented as Upper Carboniferous or of the true coal-period. All the evidence which can be procured concerning the age of these deposits shows them to be Tertiary. The re- semblance of the sandstone found with the coal to that of San Francisco, and the presence of Pectens in it has been noticed in published reports. Observations by Prof J.S. Newberry reported since the publication of the map show that these coal-deposits are undoubtedly Tertiary.* In the region of the Wind River mountains, a range called the Black Hills, extending northeast of the Platte, has found a place in most of our maps. We find the geological structure of this range indicated on the map, as granitic and carboniferous, while on another map published in Gotha, it is represented as com- posed of cupriferous trap. A recent exploration of that region by Lieut. G. K. Warren, U.S. A., shows that this range is purely imaginary and should not appear on the maps north of the Platte. According to the map, the region of the South Pass is occu- pied by a belt of cupriferous trap, extending over at least two degrees of longitude, and in a northeast and southwest direction, with the same trend as Keweenaw point and Isle Royale, Lake Superior. ‘There is no record of any such outcrops as this in any of the reports of explorers who have visited that region. Fremont, Stansbury and others, found horizontal sedimentary formations resting on granitic rocks.t The Wind River range, which according to Col. Fremont and his collection, is granitic and metamorphic, trending north-west- erly, is not represented on the map. Fremont’s peak, however, the highest peak of the range, and described by Fremont as composed of granite, gneiss, syenite, and syenitic gneiss, 1s rep- resented as a volcano. The Raton Mountains are also colored as volcanic ; in Abert’s Report they are described as sedimentary, and coal-plants were obtained there and figured in the report. These, however, are but inconsiderable errors when compared with the representation of the geological age of the strata form- ing the broad table lands on each side of the great central chain of mountains. These are represented as Jurassic above and Tri- assic below. The Jurassic forms a conspicuous feature on the map and includes the Llano Estacado, and all the table-lands from the Missouri to the Rio Grande. It is surrounded by a * Proceedings of the American Association for tbe Advancement of Science, Albany, 1856. + See the descriptions of the collections by Prof. James Hall, and report of Col. J. ©, Fremont, p. 295. + Report of an Examination of New Mexico, by Lieut. J. W. Abert, U.S. Top. Engineers, 1848 SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.——-NOV., 1856. 386 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. much broader coloring representing the trias. Yet there is no sufficient evidence of the presence of Jurassic formations, and the Llano and other plateaux referred to that age are not Jurassic, but Cretaceous. The evidence brought forward to show the presence of the Jurassic, consists of one species of Gryphea and one of Ostrea. They were obtained from the upper strata of Pyramid Mount— one of the mounds separated from. the Llano Estacado by ero- sion. The Grypheza is said to have the greatest analogy with G. dilatata of the Oxford clay of England and France, and was provisionally called G. Tucumcari. The Ostreea is reported to bear much resemblance to O. Marshii of the inferior Oolite of Europe.* In the text accompanying the map the species are announced as identical, one with G. dilatata, the other with O. Marshii. Even if this identity be admitted, it does not author- ize the conclusion that the strata are beyond question Jurassic ; or if it did, the occurrence of Jurassic at that one point on the Canadian, would not authorize us to conclude that the formation extends for. more than a thousand miles on both sides of the mountains. The genus Gryphea in America is eminently char- acteristic of the Cretaceous formation, and species which very closely resemble G. Tucumcari, if not in fact identical with it, are very abundant in Alabama and New Jersey in the Cretaceous formation. Moreover, all the species are found with many varia- tions according to the locality. The abundance and variety of the species of this genus render it unsafe to regard G. Tucum- cari, however much it may resemble G. dilatata, conclusive evidence of the presence of oolitic formations. Specimens of the Gryphza are found in the government collection, but there are none of the Ostreea. Some of the evidences of the Cretaceous age of the Llano may now be presented. If we follow the strata in which the Gryphea was procured, westward, we find them extending across the mountain chain, through the passes, into the valley of the Rio Grande, and here near the summit of the table-lands just south of Santa Fé, Mr. Marcou reports the presence of Cretace- ous fossils. Farther west, at Poblazon near the Puerco, Lieuten- ant Abert obtained several specimens of Jnoceramust from hori- zontal strata. The topography at this point is the same as along the valley of the Canadian, the strata are at nearly the same ele- vation, and their mineral characters are similar. Numerous specimens of Jnoceramus have also been obtained by Simpson,t * See Resumé of a Geological reconnoissance, &c. Report of Lieut. A. W. Whip- ple, U.S. Top. Engrs., H. Doc. 129, ehap. vi. + Described and figured by Prof. Bailey—Report by Lieut. J. W. Abert, U.S. Top. Engrs. of an Examination of New Mexico. t Report aad Map of the Route from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fé, by Lieut. J. H. Simpson, U. 8. Top. Engrs., Washington, 1850. Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 387 Wislizenus and others along the valley of the Canadian river not far from Pyramid Mount, where the Gryphea was procured.- Farther east on the False Washita and near the Canadian, the Cretaceous fossil Gryphea Pitchert occurs in abundance and near the great beds of gypsum. Leon Spring, in the southern part of the Liano, has afforded abundance of Cretaceous fossils, and this place is represented on the map as Jurassic. Cretaceous fossils were also obtained by Capt. Pope from the bluffs of the Llano at the Sulphur Springs of the Colorado and from the surface of the plateau near the Sand Hills.* The Llano of Texas is well known an1 is undoubtedly the continuatiom of the Llano Ksta- cado. The bluffs are filled with Cretaceous fossils already de- scribed by Ferdinand Roemer. They are correctly represented as Cretaceous on the map. The map displays a most remarkable relation of position be- tween the Cretaceous and the “Jurassic” along the valley of the Rio Grande between E] Paso and the mouth of the Pecos. The river has cut its valley downwards through the horizontal forma- tions of the Llano which form bluffs on each side. On the map we find the valley of the stream colored as Cretaceous, while the higher strata of the Llano, are colored as Jurassic. Thus, according to this representation, the Jurassic strata overlie the Cretaceous. This conclusion is unavoidable unless we are ready to believe that the Cretaceous strata were deposited since the erosion of the valley of the Rio Grande. The same alternative is presented to us along the Upper Missouri; the highest table-land is colored as Jurassic, and the Cretaceous is made to crop out lower down nearer the river and rests directly upon the formation called Trias. But the most striking feature of the map remains to be no- ticed. We find an area equal to that of all the States east of the Mississippi colored as Triassic. The section also represents this formation as enormously thick, and with four divisions corres- ponding to those in Hurope. The color is extended on the map along the whole course of the Missouri down to Council Bluffs, and south into Texas, and is carried east so as to reach and bor- der the southern shore of Lake Superior. The basis of this repre- sentation is chiefly the occurrence of red gypseous strata along the False Washita and Canadian rivers. The upper limit of the formation is considered to be at the base of the so-called Juras- sic strata of the Llano, and its lower upon the Carboniferous. The representation of this broad area as Triassic is made with- out the evidence of a single characteristic fossil, the principal support for it being the position and mineral characters of the strata. Itis said that they are like those of Windsor and Plaister Cove, N.S8., which were supposed to be Triassic but have since been shown by Mr. Dawson to be Carboniferous.t Hence the * Report on the Geology of the Route surveyed by Bvt. Capt. Pope, U. 8S. Top. Engrs. 4to. Washington, 1856. [Pacific R. R. Exp. and Surveys.] + Acadian Geology; by J: W: Dawson. Edinburgh; 1855, 388 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. similarity indicates a Carboniferous age rather than Triassic. The limit of the formation above or below, although perhaps well defined at one point, may not be at others, or may be very different; the red color of the strata—the only guide—being the result of chemical changes and not of original deposition. The lower limit is not clearly defined, and there are no outcrops or uplifts of the strata sufficient to reveal the whole series. The thickness, therefore, cannot be accurately stated. The entire absence of fossils from these strata, so far as known, and our slight knowledge of the line of separation between them and those of known age, and the impossibility of deter- mining their thickness, render it premature, at least, to assion them to the age of the Trias, and to partition them into groups corresponding to those of the formation m Hurope. We may with equal reason call the strata Jurassic, Liassic, Triassic and Permian, or either of them, as Triassic alone. It would be most in accordance with the indications to refer them to the Cretace- ous and Carboniferous, the two adjacent formations above and below. : But even if the gypseous strata along the Canadian were proved to be of Triassic age, it does not follow that those along the Upper Missouri, a thousand miles away, are of the same period. According to published reports the strata along the river are Cretaceous, and there is no evidence of the presence of the Trias. Neither is there any evidence of the extension of the Lake Superior sandstone across Wisconsin into Iowa and out to the Missouri, as if the formation occupied an east and west valley in the granite. Such a representation is at variance with published records, and these surely should be regarded in the absence of personal observation. It is hardly necessary to state that the sandstone of Lake Superior has been examined by three separate geological corps,—Messrs. Whitney and Foster with the assistance of Prof. James Hall, by D. D. Owen, and by Sir W. H. Logan of Canada—and after several years of exploration in that region, all arrive at the conclusion that the sandstone is not the New Red, but is the equivalent of the Potsdam sand- stone of New York. Prof. James Hall has announced the con- clusion also in a notice of a former map by Mr. Marcou. There is here a disregard of published results and an auda- cious attempt at generalization which has seldom been equalled. The fact that Mr. Marcou’s map is widely circulating in Hurope just such American Geology as this, has made it the duty of the science of the country to protest against its being accepted abroad, notwithstanding its publication under the sanction of the Geological Society of France. E. Emmons on New Fossil Corals from North Carolina. 389 Art. XXXTIL—On New Fossil Corals from North Carolina; by EK. Emmons. (From a letter to one of the Editors.) | THE fossils which I herewith transmit for your examination occur in Montgomery Co., N.C. Jregard them as the oldest organic bodies yet discovered. But that you or your readers may be furnished with facts upon which they may form their opinions, I will state the relations of the masses in which they are found both with the inferior primary series, and the over- lying rocks which immediately succeed the beds in which they are found. 1. Talcose slates in connexion with granite or gneissoid granite. | 2. Brecciated conglomerate from 800 to 400 feet thick. Parts of this mass are porphyrized. 3, Slaty breccia associated with chert or hornstone. 4, Granular quartz, which is in part vitrified and filled with this fossil and with siliceous concretions, which are about the size of almonds. It is 250-300 feet thick. 5. Slaty quartzite, its fossils much less numerous. It is 40 feet thick. 6. Slaty sandstone without fossils, 50 feet. 7. White quartz, more or less vitrified, filled with fossils and almond-shaped concretions. 8. Jointed granular quartz, similar to that of Berkshire Co., Mass., with only a few fossils. 9. Vitrified quartz without fossils, 30 feet thick. 10. Granular quartz, no fossils, thickness great, but unde- termined. 11. Overlying these siliceous beds is a clay slate like that so common in Rensselaer and Columbia Cos., N. York. As yet, it has yielded me no fossils. The slate asa whole, remains un- changed, but frequently contains vitrified beds, or silicified ones, the origin of which I do not propose to speak of at this time. ja 1b Ic Xs i It is evident the fossil is a coral. Among the specimens I think I can recognize two species. The generic name which I have given it is Paleotrochis, “‘ Old Messenger,” the smaller is the P. minor (fig. 1), the larger, P. major, fig. 2. 390 EL. Emmons on New Fossil Corals from North Carolina. i . "a (i Form lenticular and circular, and similar to a double cone, applied base to base; surfaces grooved; grooves somewhat irreg- ular, but extend from the apices to the base or edge. Apex of P. minor provided with a rounded excavation, the opposite with a Heaintlel knob. The description it will be perceived applies to the three smaller figures or P. minor. | : The reproduction of the coral seems to take place invariably upon the common edge of the double cone. A germ bud, or a young one, appears on the edge of fig. 1a. The multiplication of similar buds produces a change of form, as represented in fig. Ie, where the edge appears strongly grooved, or double. ‘The mid- dle figure shows the rounded depression, the right hand one, the knob. It is worthy of notice that as the cones are dissimilar, but meet together at the edge spoken of, this edge becomes the plane of reproduction. Ido not know however, but .germs are also formed in the grooves, but the coral is constantly undergoing a change of form, by the production of germs upon the edge. The individuals are very numerous, the rock being composed almost entirely of them, intermixed with concretions, for 600 or 700 feet in thickness. The debris of this fossiliferous sandstone has been worked quite successfully for gold. The metal is contained in ferrugi- nous masses, in the rock which appears to have been an aurifer- ous pyrites. Over $100,000 have been procured by pulverizing and washing this material which also very frequently contains the Paleeotrochis. Albany, September 10, 1856. J. Eights on a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas. 391 Art, XXXIV.—Description of an Lsopod Crustacean from the Ant- arctic Seas, with Observations on the New South Shetlands ; by JAMES E1guHTs.— With two plates. [Ir is a fact of interest in the geographical distribution of ani- mals, that the largest number of species of the group of Tetra- decapods (the 14-footed Crustacea), and those also of the largest size, are found, not in the tropics, but in the temperate and frigid zones. Among known species, the ratio for the tropics and ex- tratropics, as I have shown, is 150 : 580, or over three times as many occur in the extra-tropics as in the tropics. In my memoir _on the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea, I have stated that out of the 49 recognized genera of Isopods, only 19 occur in the tropics; of 20 genera of Anisopods, only 6 occur in the tropics; and out of the 50 genera of Gammaridea, only 17 contain trop- ical species. Among the Isopods, the tribe of Idotzidea is es- pecially numerous in cold-water seas; the ratio of extra-tropical to tropical species being 8:1; and two-ninths of the extra-tropical belonging to the frigid zone. Moreover the frigid or subfrigid zone affords the largest of known Idoteide, one or more of them three to four inches in length, while the tropical species hardly ex- ceed aninch. The Glyptonotus of Hights, from the New South Shetlands, is one of these giant species, the length of his specimen being 84 inches. It therefore takes the lead among Isopods, and even among all Tetradecapods, and derives thence a peculiar in- terest. It was described in the 2nd volume of the Albany Insti- tute, and represented by two fine plates engraved by Mr. J. EK. Gavit. Through the kindness of Mr. Gavit we are allowed the use of the plates, and therefore here republish the description of Dr. Hights. It is not clear that the genus Glyptonotus is actually distinct from the older one of Idotza. Yet it will prob- ably be sustained on the ground of the form of the head, the character of the abdomen, and perhaps the distinctive peculiari- ties of the 6 anterior legs. Part of the characters mentioned in the description are involved in the fact of its belonging to the Tetradecapoda. Still we cite it entire, as published. The same volume of Transactions of the Albany Institute (pp. 58-69,) contains Remarks by the same author on the New South Shetland Islands, from which we make citations, after giving the description of the Crustacean.—J. D. D.] Genus GLYPTONOTUS, Lights. Animal composed of a head, thorax, and post-abdomen, consti- tuting in all thirteen distinct segments. Head deeply inserted into the cephalic segment of the thorax. Hyes sessile, and finely granulate. Antenne two pairs, placed 392 J. Hights on a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas. one above the other, with an elongate multiarticulated filament. Mouth as in the ordinary Jsopods ; mandibles not palpigerous ; the. two superior foot-jaws expanded into a well defined lower lip, bearing palpi. 4% Thorax separated into seven distinct segments, the three poste- rior ones biarticulate near their lateral extremities; each seement giving origin to a pair of perfect legs, terminating with a strong and slightly curved nail. Post-abdomen, or tail, divided into five segments, provided with neither styles nor natatory appendages; the under surfaces each supporting a pair of branchial leaflets, longitudinally ar- ranged, and covered by two biarticulafed plates attached to the outward edges of the last segment, closing over them much in the manner of an ordinary bivalve shell. ate Species G'. Antarctica.—Animal perfectly symmetrical, ovate, elongate, and depressed. ‘l’eguments solid and calcareous. Color, brown sepia. Length, from the insertion of the antennz, three and a half inches; width, one and three-quarters. Head traversely elliptical, terminating at its lateral and ante- rior margin obtusely elevated, aud arched each way to its centre. Superior surface of the head ornamented with an imperfectly sculptured ‘‘fleur-de-lis;” posterior portion obtusely elevated, producing a marginal rim. yes small, reniform, indigo blue, and placed near the lateral and anterior portion of the head, so deeply impressed in the margin of the shell as to be easily dis- tinguished from beneath. Inferior pair of antenne longer than the superior, corresponding in length to the width of the head, transversely, from spine to spine; articulations four in number; last segment longest, the remaining three gradually diminishing in length as they proceed to the place of insertion; segments triangulate, with angular projections on their surfaces; edges of the angles, and articulating extremities rigidly spined. ‘Ter- minating filament about the length of the basal articulations, eradually attenuated until it diminishes to a finely pointed apex. Superior antenne half the length of the mferior, three-jointed, and terminating with an attenuated filament whose articulations are indistinct; segments angular, external one much the longest; extremities and angles likewise spined. Mouth with the labrum or upper lip hard and massive, resembling in form a reversed heart. The mandibles are without palpi, stout and osseous, tip- ped with a hard and black enamel. The maxille are furnished with the usual palpi. The lower lip, or superior foot-jaws when united, sub-cordate; its palpi five-jointed, snugly embracing the manducatory organs along their base, like a row of ciliated leaflets. The thorax is composed of seven distinct segments, each one being beautifully ornamented on its superior surface by an elon- J. Eighis en a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas. 3938 gated and sub-conic insculptation, forming a series, whose pointed apices almost unite along the longitudinal dorsal ridge. These segments are finely bordered along their posterior articulating edges by an elevated and continuous marginal rim, extending to the. lateral extremities of the shell. The cephalic depression is likewise margined by an obtusely elevated border. Hach seg- ment of the thorax gives origin, beneath, to a pair of ponderous angulated legs, composed of the ordinary parts. The three an- terior pairs project themselves forward, and are closely com- pressed upon the inferior surfaces of the three foremost seg- ments; they are monodactyle, with the nails incurved upon the anterior edges of the rather largely inflated penultimate joint. Hach joint is furnished at its articulating extremity with rigid spines; the inner edges of the penultimate joint, together with those of the three adjoining, are provided with a double row of tufted cilize, disposed diagonally, and much resembling in appear- ance the arrangement of hairs in an ordinary brush. The four posterior pairs of legs are directed backwards, strongly triangu- late, stout and ponderous, terminating by a slightly curved nail; their length is nearly equal, but they gradually increase in thick- ness as they recede toward the tail. ‘The basal joints are large and inflated; the remainder regularly angulate. The extremt- ties of the articulating joints, and edges of the two inferior an- gles, are each provided with a series of tufted and rigid spines. The post-abdomen is composed of five segments. The four an- terior ones are much smaller than those which constitute the thorax, but greatly resemble them in form, being ornamented on their superior surfaces with similar insculptations, though but slightly defined. Hach of these segments 1s provided beneath with a pair of articulated pedicels, which furnish a support to the bifoliated branchial leaflets. These leaflets are arranged longitudinally one upon the other, and are entirely concealed by the biarticulated plates of the caudal segment; they are sub- oviate and elongate: the outer ones smaller than those which they cover, and are nearly surrounded by a fringed cilia, most conspicuously developed along their inner margins. The second pair are each supplied with an elongated style, extending almost to the termination of the caudal segment. ‘T’he terminating seg- ment is large and triangular, giving attachment to the biarticu- lated plates at a single point on its outer margins near the base, which enables the animal to close them together in a line along its centre beneath. These plates are about the length of the seg- ment, and of a triangulate form, each one having near its ter- mination a small oval articulation. The segment and marginal plates are slightly inflated along their external edges, producing an obtusely elevated border. | SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856. 50 394 J, Eights on the New South Shetlands. The segments constituting the thorax and post-abdomen are supplied by a central, angular, and elongated knob, which, when united, form a prominent dorsal ridge, gradually diminishing in its backward course, and forming a sharp elevated line along the caudal segment, terminating at its extremity in a short and ob- tusely pointed spine. This beautiful crustacean furnishes to us another close approxi- mation to the long lost family of the Trilobite. I procured them from the southern shores of the New South Shetland Islands. They inhabit the bottom of the sea, and are only to be obtained when thrown far upon the shores by the immense surges that prevail when the detached glaciers from the land precipitate themselves into the ocean. Extracts from the Remarks of Dr. Hights on the New South Shetlands. After landing at several places along the coast and spending some days at Staaten Land, we proceeded to the new South Shet- land Islands, whieh are situated between 61° and 68° of south latitude, and 54° and 63° west longitude. ‘They are formed by anextensive cluster of rocks rising abruptly from the ocean, to a considerable height above its surface. ‘Their true elevation cannot easily be determined, in consequence of the heavy masses of snow which lie over them, concealing them almost entirely from the sight. Some of them however rear their glistening summits to an altitude of about three thousand feet, and when the heavens are free from clouds, imprint a sharp and well de- fined outline upon the intense blueness of the sky: they are di- vided everywhere by straits and indented by deep bays, or coves, many of which afford to vessels a comfortable shelter from the rude gales to which these high latitudes are so subject. The shores of these islands are generally formed by perpen- dicular cliffs of ice frequently reaching for many miles, and ris- ing from ten feet, to several hundred in height. In many places at their base, the continued action of the water has worn out deep caves with broadly arched roofs, under which the ocean rolls its wave with a subterranean sound that strikes most singu- larly on the ear; and when sufficiently undermined, extensive portions crack off with an astounding repoft, creating a tremen- dous surge in the sea below, which as it rolls over its surface, sweeps everything before it, from the smallest animal that feeds on its shallow bottom, to those of the greatest bulk. Entire skeletons of the whale, fifty or sixty feet in length, are not un- frequently found in elevated situations along the shores many feet above the high water line, and I know of no other cause capable of producing this effect. Whales are very common in this vicinity. J. Eights on the New South Shetlands. 395 The rocks are composed principally of vertical columns of basalt, resting upon strata of argillaceous conglomerate; the pil- lars are united in detached groups, having at their bases sloping banks constructed of materials which are constantly accumula- ting by fragments from above. These groups rise abruptly from the irregularly elevated plains, over whose surface they are here and there scattered, presenting an appearance to the eye not unlike some old castle crumbling into ruin, and when situated upon the sandstone promontories that occasionally jut out into the sea, they tower aloft in solitary grandeur over its foaming waves; sometimes they may be seen piercing the superincum- bent snow, powerfully contrasting their deep murky hues with its spotless purity. Ponds of fresh water are now and then found on the plains, but they do not owe their origin to springs, being formed by the melting of the snow. The rocky shores of these islands are formed of bold craggy eminences standing out into the sea at different distances from each other, from whose bases dangerous reefs not unfrequently lie out for several miles in extent, rendering it necessary for navi- gators to keep a cautious watch, after making any ee of this coast: the intervals between these crags are composed of narrow strips of plain, constructed of coarsely angulated fragments of -every variety of size, which at some previous period have fallen from the surrounding hills. They slope gradually down to the water terminating in a fine sandy beach: a few rounded pieces of granite are occasionally to be seen lying about, brought un- questionably by the icebergs from their parent hills on some far more southern land, as we saw no rocks of this nature in situ on these islands. In one instance, I obtained a bowlder nearly a foot in diameter from one of these floating hills. The action of the waves has produced little or no effect upon the basalt along this coast, as its angles retain all the acuteness of a recent frac- ture, but where the conglomerate predominates, the masses are generally rounded. The color of the basalt is mostly of a greenish black. The prisms have from four to nine sides, most commonly however but six, and are from three to four feet in diameter; their greatest _ length in an upright position above the subjacent conglomerate is about eighty feet. ‘Their external surfaces are closely applied to each other, though but slightly united, and consequently they are continually falling out by the expansive power of the congeal- ing water among its fissures. When they are exposed to the influence of the atmosphere for any length of time, they are for a small depth of a rusty brown color, owing no doubt to the iron which they contain becoming partially peroxydized: some- times they are covered by a thin coating of quartz and chal- cedony. 396 J. Eights on the New South Shetlands. Clusters of these columns are occasionally seen reposing’ on their side in such a manner as to exhibit the surfaces of their base distinctly, which is rough and vesicular. When this is the case they are generally bent, forming quite an arch with the horizon. Where they approach the conglomerate for ten or twelve feet, they lose their columnar structure and assume the appearance of a dark-colored flinty slate, breaking readily into irregular rhombic fragments: this fine variety in descending sradually changes to a greenish color and a much coarser struc- ture, until it passes into a most perfect amygdaloid, the cavities being chiefly filled with quartz, amethyst and chalcedony. Sometimes an interval of about forty or fifty feet occurs between these columns, which space is occupied by the amorphous variety elevated to some considerable height against them; their edges in this case are not at all changed by the contact. The basis rock of these islands, as far as I could discover, is the conglomerate which underlies the basalt. It 1s composed most generally of two or three layers, about five feet in thick- ness each, resting one on the other and dipping to the southeast at an angle of from twelve to twenty degrees. These layers are divided by regular fissures into large rhombic tables, many of which appear to have recently fallen out, and now le scattered all over the sloping sides of the hills, so that the strata when. seen cropping out from beneath the basalt, present a slightly arched row of angular projections of some considerable magni- tude and extent. : These strata are chiefly composed of irregular and angular fragments of rock, whose principal ingredient appears to be green earth, arranged into both a granular and slaty structure, and united by an argillaceous cement; the whole mass when moistened by the breath giving out a strong argillaceous odor. The upper portion of this conglomerate for a few feet, is of a dirty green color, and appears to have been formed by the passage of the amygdaloid into this rock, the greenish fragments predominating, and they are united to each other principally by a zeolite of a beautiful light red or orange color, together with some quartz and chalcedony; a few crystals of lime cause it to effervesce slightly in some places. These minerals seem in a great measure to replace the earthy cement. In descending a few feet farther, the ereen fragments gradually decrease in number and become com- paratively rare, the minerals also give place to the cement until the whole mass terminates below in a fine argillaceous substance, with an imperfect slaty structure and a spanish-brown aspect. This rock being much softer in its nature than the basalt and more affected by decomposing agents, the number of fragments are consequently greater in proportion, and much more finely E.. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetis. 397 pulverised, forming the little soil which supports some of the scattered and scanty patches of vegetation on these islands. The minerals embraced in this rock are generally confined to its upper part where it unites and passes into the incumbent amyg- daloid, and many of them are also in common with that rock. They consist chiefly of quartz, crystalline and amorphous, ame- thyst, chalcedony, cacholong, agate, red jasper, felspar, zeolite, calcareous spar in rhombic crystals, sulphate of barytes, a minute erystal resernbling black spinelle, sulphuret of iron and green carbonate of copper. The only appearance of an organized remain that I anywhere saw, was a fragment of carbonized wood imbedded in this con- glomerate. It was in a vertical position, about two and a half feet in length and four inches in diameter: its color is black, ex- hibiting a fine ligneous structure, and the concentric circles are distinctly visible on its superior end; it occasionally gives sparks with steel, and effervesces slightly in nitric acid. There are a number of active volcanoes in the vicinity of these islands, indications of which are daily seen in the pieces of pum- ice found strewed along the beach. Capt. Weddel saw smoke issuing from the fissures of Bridgeman’s island, a few leagues to the northeast. Palmer’s land is situated one degree south: what little is known of it, which is only a small portion of its north- ern shore, contains several. Deception island also one of this group, has boiling springs, and a whitish substance like melted feldspar exudes from some of its fissures. eae % = ART. XXXV.—Description of a large Bowlder in the Drift of Am- herst, Massachusetts, with parallel strie upon four sides; by Professor HipwaRrp HircHcock. In grading one of the streets in Amherst last year, the surface of a large bowlder, or ledge, in front of the residence of Hon. Edward Dickinson, was brought to light, on which numerous rather fine but distinct striee were exhibited, whose direction cor- responds essentially with that taken by the drift agency in this region, viz., south a few degrees east. This fact led me to sus- pect the rock to be the top of a ledge: but on probing the earth around, I found it to be a bowlder. The present summer I pro- posed to my class in Geology, (which is the Junior Class in Col- lege), to dig around the specimen, and try to remove at least the top of it to the vicinity of the Geological Cabinet, about half a mile distant, where it might serve as a fine example of strize to future classes. They promptly engaged in the enterprise, and on digging around the specimen, found it to be of an oblong 398 EH. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetts. shape, the four longest sides being nearly at right angles to each other, while the ends were more irregular. Its medium length was 64 feet; its breadth, 54 feet; and its thickness, 22 feet. Consequently its weight was about eight tons. It was determined to raise it out of its bed; and when this was done, I was sur- prised to find the strize more distinct upon the bottom than any- where else. They were more minute upon the perpendicular sides than on any other part, though these sides were perhaps the most perfectly smoothed. But on all sides they were essen- tially parallel, although upon the top there were at least two sets, making a small angle with each other, as is common upon surfaces striated by the drift agency. I had never met with a bowlder of this description. Its unique character awakened an ambition in the class to remove it entire. I doubted their ability to do this: but young men are strong, and in this case they were very skillful also; for al- though much of the way is ascending, they went through the work successfully, and without accident; and in a single day they planted: the bowlder in front of the Wood’s Cabinet on a slope, sustaining the lower end by portions of two large trap columns from Mount T'om, so that the visitor can look beneath and see the striz there. It stands in the same position as ori- einally, except that the ends are inverted. Deeply engraved upon one end are the words,—‘‘ The Class of 1857;” that being the year when they graduate. This rock is a fine-grained hard reddish sandstone, such as oc- curs on the west face of Mettawampe, (Mt. Toby,) a mountain lying nearly north of Amherst, ten miles distant, and from which the bowlder was undoubtedly derived. How now shall we explain the parallel striation on four sides of this bowlder? Striated blocks I believe, have generally been regarded as having been frozen into an iceberg, or a glacier, which grated along the surface. But this explains the strize only on one side. For if the bowlder should happen to have been frozen into a second iceberg, or glacier, how small a chance would there be, that it would be scratched in a parallel direction on a second side. Far less is the probability that a third side would have been striated in the same direction; and almost in- finitely less the chance that a fourth side would have experi- enced a like dressing. Should a bowlder be frozen four times into a mass of ice, how almost certain that the striz would run in different directions. We must, therefore, give up the idea that this bowlder was scratched in the manner usually assigned. But suppose that when it started from Mettawampe on its southern journey, it were frozen into the bottom of an iceberg. As this grated over the rocky surface, it would soon be smoothed and striated: nor is it strange that in such a manner the erosion E.. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetts. 399 and grooving should be deeper, and the edges less rounded, (as they are) than by what I suppose to have been the subsequent processes. ; There is another way in which this striation of the bottom might have been accomplished. It might have been done while yet the bowlder was a part of the ledge from which it was bro- ken. In that case it must have been turned over after starting from its bed. A third method may be suggested for this work. After the bowlder got mixed up with other fragments, and a strong vis a tergo, either aqueous or glacial, was pushing them all forward, so large a block as this might have pressed so heavily upon the surface as to be deeply furrowed, That a strong force was ex- erted upon the bowlder to urge it forward, is obvious from a fact respecting the end of it, (A) lying towards the north (now the south end), as shown by the annexed out- line. Both ends appear for the most part as if acted upon chiefly by water, being irregu- larly rounded and smoothed, but not furrowed, except in two places, a and b. Near the middle, the top, as may be seen, projects a foot or so, and on each side the surface is striated by lines running up- wards, as if smaller bowlders had struck against it, and not being able to move it, were forced over it. If a strong current were thus crowding detritus against and over the bowlder, its oblong form would keep its longer axis in the same direction as the stream. Hence the smaller fragments forced against and over it, would smooth the top and the sides in the same direction. They would press most heavily upon the top, and accordingly the strize are much deeper there than upon the sides, though it should also be recollected that the edge of a stratum is usually harder than its face. I impute the parallel striation of this bowlder, then, first to its great weight, which caused smaller fragments to slide over it more or less; and secondly, to its oblong form, which kept it nearly in the same position while advancing. The only strize on this bowlder not yet described, are a few faint ones running obliquely across the present north end, (the 400 Scientific Intelligence. south end as it lay originally). Most of these I presume are simply the marks of vehicles, which, for the whole spring, passed over this part of the bowlder, and I was surprised to find that they made so slight an impression. I think, however, that among these wagon tracks 1 can see one or two produced by some other agency; and it is not improbable that during its rough transportation, bowlders might have been forced over it in that direction. I have regarded the detritus collected along the central part of Amherst, where this bowlder lay, as Modified Drift: that is, coarse drift that has been subsequently acted upon, and more or less rounded and sorted by water. Generally the fragments at this place are more rounded and of less size than we see in the coarse drift upon the neighboring hills, and yet the bowlders are considerably larger, though the one now described is much the largest I have seen in our modified drift. As this bowlder seems to me to be of unusual interest, and is now placed permanently, through the energy and scientific zeal of the class of 1857, where geologists can examine it, I have thought this description might be acceptable to the readers of the Journal. At any rate, it has been the means of qualifying one College Class, as they wander over the world, to examine stri- ated bowlders and ledges. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the wave lengths of the most refrangible rays of light in the In- éerference Spectrum.—EisENLOuR has contributed a very interesting paper upon the wave lengths of the invisible rays, which he has determined by means of the diffraction spectrum, essentially in the manner employed by Schwerd. The author in the first place describes his method of project- ing the phenomena of diffraction upon a screen. 65°72.4 58444000 24-28.0.2.1381 5)... 8138... .3 602... See ...2 118... 0°45... ete, in which the sum of any two adjoining terms equals the next preceding. In the series 4 J 2 3 8 58,, etc. the last term has the value 0°618, cor- responding with the value of the larger of the terms above, and showing that the series is based fundamentally on the preceding. M. Zeising com- pares the normal height of man (A) with the height of the lower part of the body (B), and of the upper (C), and states the ratio, A: B: C=1000: 6180: 381-9. Again, for the ratio of the whole lower part (A), the upper part of the leg (B), and the lower (C), the ratio A: B: C=618-0:381°9: 236°0. So also for the upper part of the body (A), and its two parts the chest (B), and the head (C), the ratio A: B:C=3881-9 : 236-0: 145°9.—In music, the ratios 1:2: 3:5: 8, are given by the succession of tones C: C (octave): G: E:C (2nd octave).—1 : 2 is the octave; 2: 3 the fifth; 3:5 major sixth or minor third transposed; 5:8 minor sixth, or major third transposed, ¥ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 455 t For the proportion of land and water on the globe, Rigaud deduced the ratio 100: 270, and Humboldt, the ration 100:280; and this corres- ponds with 3? : 5? which equals 9 : 25 or 100: 277. The land of the American continents equals 10,606,400 sq. m., and that of the other hem- isphere, 27,274,000 sq. m.; the ratio is 1:2°57 which equals 5?:8?. These are a few examples from the work. 16. Principles of Chemistry, embracing the most recent discoveries in the Science, and the outlines of its application to Agriculture and the Arts. Illustrated by numerous experiments newly adapted to the simplest appa- ratus; by Joun A. Porrer, M.A., M.D., Prof. Agric. and Organic Chem. in Yale College. 480 pp.12mo. New York, 1856. A. 8S, Barnes & Co. —lIn the preparation of this text-book, Prof. Porter has aimed at a clear, simple and practical presentation of the principles of Chemistry, not over- loaded with details, and with such experimental illustrations as may be repeated with simple means, small expense, and little previous knowledge. The plan is well carried out, and the work is an excellent one for classes in Chemistry. 17. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. vi1.—U. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition, vol. 1.—These works were not received in time for a notice in this number. B. Atvorp: The Tangencies of Circles and of Spheres, by Benjamin Alvord, Major U.S. A.—Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 16 pp. 4to, with 9 plates. Srreenstrupr : Hectocotyldannelsen hos Octoposlegterne Argonauta og Tremocto- pus, ved Joh. Japetus Sm. Steenstrup. 32 pp. 4to, with 2 plates. Kjobenhavn. 1856. Ninth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York on the cundition of the State Cabinet of Natural History and the Historical and Antiquarian Collection annexed thereto, Albany, 1856. Procrepines Acap. Nat. Scr. Puiz., VIII—p. 101 and 106, Remarks on some Reptiles occurring near Philadelphia; Hallowell—p. 102, Note on the massive spathic iron of the West side of Chesapeake bay, called Baltimore ore; C. #. Smith. —p. 103, On four new species of Exotic Uniones; J. Lea.—p. 109, Descriptions of three Myriapoda; A. Sager.—p. 109, Description of thirteen new species of Exotic Peristomata ; J, Lea—p.111, Descriptions of fossils from the Tertiary of the Upper Missouri, with remarks on the Geology; F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M. D.—p. 126, Ceratites Americanus, Prof. LZ. Harper.—p. 128, Examination of Meteoric [ron from Xiquipilco, Mexico; W. J. Taylor.—p. 130, Description of two new species of Urodeles from Georgia; EH. Hallowell, M. D.—p. 131, Contributions to the Ichthy- ology of the Western Coast of the United States from specimens in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution ; C. Girard, M. D.—p. 138, New Experiments on A. St. Martin, the person experimented on by Dr. Beaumont. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra.den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjébenhayn. 1854. No.8-12—Contents: Mexican and Central American Acanthacee, with two plates; A. S. Oersted.—Plants of the Haunien University, No. 2; &. Didrichsen— On the occurrence of Tin ore and Cryolite in Greenland; 7h. Hoff:—On the locali- ties of Graphite and Eupyrchroite in the State of New York; C. Fogh.—On the Convolvulaceee from Guinea in the University Museum; A. Didrichsen, From Th. Kunike, successor to C. A. Koch, Greisswald. Der Pithoanische Codex Juvenals. Erster Theil. Kritisch-exegetische Abhandlung, von Dr. A. HAckermann, Gymnasiallehrer. 40 pp. 4to. Greisswald, 1856. T. Kunike. Index Scholarum in Universitate Litteraria Gry phisvaldensi, per semestre estivum Anni mMptcocc.vyt, a Die Mensis Afrilis habendarum. TT. Kunike. De Gravidatate Extra-uterina, accedit Descriptio memorande cujusdam Gravidi- tatis Tube Fallopaine sinistre: scripsit Dr. Ferd. Bernard. Guil. Sommer; 4to, cum Tabula enea. Greisswald. T. Kunike. Mémoire sur une Methode Nouvelle de Transformation des Coordonnées dans le Plan et dans |'Espace, avec application aux Lignes et Surfaces des deux premiers degrés; par M. Georges Dostor, Dr. és Sci. Math., Prof. de Math. a Paris, (Extrait du Journal Archiv der Math. u. Phys.) 78 pp.8vo. Greifswald, 1856. TT. Kunike. * INDEX OF VOLUME *X XIL Ee A. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., Proceedings of, 152, 455. Paris, 264. at St. Louis, officers of, 301. Acetylamin, Natanson, 406. Acid, hippuric, 102 formic, from carbonic, 403. Africa, discoveries in, 116. Agassiz, on Cume, 285. Agricultural Exhibition, Paris, 264. Aliminium watch, 301. from eryolite, 405. preparation of, Brunner, 403. American Association for the Advancement of SOR Nahe notice of Albany meeting, 150, 441. American Philosoph. Soc., Philad., Proceed- ings of, 304. Animal muscle, composition of, 9. Antimony, equivalent of, 107. Arago’s works noticed, 269. Artificial furnace products, 248. Astronomy, see Plunet. Astronomical Observatory of Harvard, an- nals of, 303. at Albany, 442. Atomic equivalent of Antimony, 107. Atomic weight of Lithium, Mallet, 349. B. Bailey, J. W, Soundings in the sea of Kamtschatka, 1. origin of Greensand, 282. Barometer, made with sulphuric acid, 449. Bartlett, G., Climate of California, 291. Bessemer’s process for making iron, 406. Blake, W. P., Marcou’s geological map, 383. Blowpipe Analysis, Manual of, by W. Elder- horst, noticed, 303. ely Soc. Nat. Hist., Proceedings of, 152, Botany of Madeira, notes on, 134. Dragon-tree of Orotava, 135. Embryo in Plants, 135. three new ferns from California and Oregon, D. C. Eaton, 133. Paint od of New Mexico and Texas, 4, Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States, Gray, 204, Notes on Loganiacee, 433. Flowers of pea-nut, 435. |Botany, notices of works, Linnean Society, 134; Meisner, 135; Martius, 137,436; Mi- chauz, 137; De Candolle, 429; Bentham, 433 ; Radlkofer,432; Tulasne, 436; H. A. Weddell, 437; Asa Gray, 437, Bowlder from drift, of Amherst, 397. Sor Sibi J. S., on the Spongiade, 415, 439. Brine in food, use of, 104. British Association, 449. ‘Buckland, obituary of, 449, Building material, on testing, J. Henry, 30. C. California, earthquakes in, Trask, 110, new ferns, D. C. Eaton, 138. climate of, Bartlett, 291. mollusks of coast, P. Carpenter, 438. Cantonite, Pratt, 449. Carbonic acid, formic acid from, 403. Centemodon, fussil reptile, 123. Chalk, spongeous origin of siliceous bodies of, 415. Chemical Technology of Ronalds and Rich- ardson, noticed, 149, Chlorine, determination of by titrition, 404. Chronometers, electric, 268. Classification of Crustacrea, Dana, 14, Clausius, R., application of the mechanical theory of heat to the Steam Engine, 180, 364. Climate of California, G. Bartlett, 291. Coal, mineral, in Peru, 274. Coal and its Topography, by J. P. Lesley, noticed, 302. Coal formation of Saxony, noticed, 454, Coal measures, fossils of, see Fossil. Coan, T’., eruption at Hlawaii, 240. Copper-wire for helices, substitute for, 267. Geinitz on, Corals from N, Carolina, Emmons, 389. Crocodiles, fossil of Nebraska, 120. Crookes, W., wax-paper photographic pro- cess, 159 Crustacea, classification of, J. D. Dana, 14. reference to paper on Paleozoic bivalved Entomostracan, 235. Cume, Agassiz, 285, fresh water Entomostracan of S. Amer- ica, Lubbock, 289. Crustacean, Isopod, from the Antarctic seas, J. Eights, 391. INDEX. D Dana, J. D., Classification of Crustacea, 14. 3d Supplement to Mineralogy of, 246. on American Geological History, 305. Plan of Development in N. A. Geologi- eal History, 335. proposed reprint of Geological Report of, 452. Darlington, notice of Gray’s Manual of Botany, 437. DeCandoile’s Geographical Butany, noticed, 429. Deville, on producing high heat, 105. Dewey, C., Neo-macropia, 301. Diamond, Kohinoor, 278. Dichromatism among solutions, Gladstone, 412, Dinornis, new species of, Owen, 138. Dragon-tree of Orotava, 135. Drift phenomena, cause of, J. D. Dana, 325. Dudley Observatory, 442. E Earth, physical structure of, Hennessy, 416. observations on origin of, J. D. Dana, 305, 335. Earthquakes in California, J. B Trask, 110.|' Earthquake at New Zealand, 128. — D. C., three new ferns of California, 138. Ehrenberg, origin of Greensand, 282. Eights, J., lsopod Crustacean from the Ant- arctic, 391. Elderhorst’s Blowpipe Manual noticed, 303. Electricity, atmospheric, 268, Electro-magnetism, substitute for copper wire of helices, 267. Electro-physiology, Matteucci, 270. Eleutherocrinus, Yandell and Shumard, 120. Elevation of Mountains, remark on Elie de Beaumont’s theory, J. D. Dana, 346. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist., Proceedings of, 152. Entomostraca, see Crustacea. Equivalent, see Atomic. Essex Institute, Proceedings of, 152. pared and its homologues, new method for, 107, Europe, information to students visiting, 146. Eyes, color blindness in, Tyndall, 143. EF Fecula of the Horse-chestnut, 264. Fishes, fossil, from Nebraska, 118. of Pa, I. Lea, 123. J. Leidy, 453. Fluorids, researches on, 405, Foote, Elishu, beat in sun’s rays, 377. Eunice, circumstances affecting heat in sun’s rays, 382, Footprints in Pa., Lea, 123. ae origin of Greensand, Bailey, £0. Formic acid from carbonic acid, 413. Fossil reptiles of Pennsylvania, Lea, 122. reptiles and fishes from Nebraska, Lerdy, 108. Fossils, of the Conn. R. Sandstone, E. Hitch- cock, Jr., 239. 457 Fossil Trilcbites near Boston, Rogers, 296. Corals (Silurian) from N. Carolina, Em- mons, 389. Fishes and Mammalia, notice of a paper by J. Lerdy on, 453 of South Carolina, by Tuomey and Holmes, noticed, 453. coal plants, Bohemia, 454, Paleeozoic star-fishes, Salter, 415. Crustacea (Pterygotus) of Scotland, Salter, 417. of bone-beds of the Upper Ludlow, Murchison, 415. mammal of the Stonesfield slate, 419. Dichodon, of Upper Eocerie, 420, shells, new from Nebraska, 423. Furnace crystalline products, 248. heat, on producing intense, Deville, 105. G ‘Galileo, tribute to, E. Everett, 443. Galvanic Battery, new kind of, 102. Gar pikes, remarks on young, 449. Geinitz on Coal formation of Saxony, noticed, 454. Geographical discoveries in Africa, 116. Geography of plants, DeCandolle on, noticed, 429, Geological Report on Tennessee, by J. M. Safford, noticed, 129. map of J. Marcou, reviewed, W. P. Blake, 383. history of America. J. D. Dana, 305, 335. Report of J. D. Dana, pruposed reprint of, 452, Transactions, Vienna, 453. Geology, sandstone of Connecticut valley, determination of age, from fossil fishes, 357. remarks on origin of, 357, origin of silica of chalk from sponges, 415. physical structure of the earth, Hennes- sy, 416. Upper Ludlow rocks, Murchison, 418. Stonesfield slate mammal], Owen, 419. Tertiary of Nebraska and the north, Meek and Hayden, 423. Geology, see Fossil. Gibbs, W., chemical abstracts, 105, 400. Gillespie on land surveying, noticed, 302. Gladstone, J. H., influence of solar radiation on plants, 49. on dichromatic phenomena among solu- tions, 412. Glyptonotus, from the Antarctic, 391. Gray, A, botanical notices, 134, 284, 429. Pi of flura of northern U. States, on potato of New Mexico and Texas, 284. jay nae of Botany, noticed, Darlington, Greensand, origin of, Bailey, 280. Guano of Monk’s Island, composition, A. 8. Pigut, 259. C. U. Shepard, 96. A. A. Hayes, 300. Gulick, L. H, Vides at Fonape, 142. Genus Tetradium, species of, J. M.|\Gunpowder, pressure of fired, W. E. Wood- Safford, 236. bridge, 153. SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856. 58 458 INDEX, 4 H Hailstorm in N. Carolina, 298. Hawaii, eruption at, T Coun, 240. Heat, on producing intense, Deville, 105. specific, of some elements, Reenault, 108. in sun’s rays, Elisha Foote, 377. ~ circumstances affecting, Eunice Foote, 282 on theorem of equivalence of work and, Clausius, 180, 364, 402. Henry, J., on pene building material, 30. Herrick, E. ., shouting stars of August 1856, 290. \Marcou’s Geological map, reviewed, W. P. Blake, 333. Murtius, Flora Brasiliensis, noticed, 436. | Matteucci, experiments in electro- physiology, 270. Meek and Hayden, tertiary of Nebraska, 423. Meteor of July 8th, 448. Meteouric iron of Thuringia, 271. of Cape of a Hope, 272. of Xiquipileo, W. J. Taylor, 374. stone of Mezé-Madaras, 272. Meteorological system of france, 266. | Mexico, new turkey of, 139. MINERALS— Hippuric acid, 102. Hitchcock, E., bowlder from drift of Amherst, 357. Hitchcock, E , Jr., new fossil shell of the Conn. R. sandstone, 233, Hurricanes, list of cyclonic, by A. Poey, no- ticed, 452. I Iguanodon, fossil related to, in Nebraska, DLeidy, 119. Infusoria in sea of Kamtschatka, Bailey, 1 Insecta Maderensia, noticed, 286. Inundations in France, 267. Jodine, crystalline form of, 271. fron, malleable, and steel, Bessemer’s pro- cess fur, 406. ores of Azoic System, J. D. Whitney, 38. sigs ss of Suez, level &c. of, 273. J Johnson, S. W., on two sugars from Califor- nia, 6. K Kamtschatka, soundings off, Bailey, 1 Kopp, specific volume of nitrogen compounds, 103. L Lake Ooroomiah, waters of, 276. Lea, £,, fossil reptiles, Pa., 122, Leblanc’s process of manufacture of soda, 99. Lerdy, J., {ossil reptiles and fishes from Ne- braska, 118. on some Carboniferous fishes, &c., no- ticed, 453. Lepidotus, fossil fish, 120. Lesley’s Manual of Coal and its Topography, noticed, 302, Level, changes of, at temple of Serapis, 126. changes at New Zealand, 128. Light, influence of, on plants, 49, wave lengths of must refrangible rays, Eisenlohr, 400. Linnean Soc., Proceedings, 134. Lithium, atomic weight of, Mallet, 349. Locke, J, obituary, 301. Lyell, changes i in temple of Serapis, 126. M. Madeira, notes on botany of, 134. work on insects of, by H. V. Wollaston, noticed, 286. Mallet, J. W., on a zeolitic mineral from the Isle ‘of Skye, 179. atomic weight of lithium, 349, Manometer alarm, 268. Mantell’s Medals of Creation, 150. Allanite of Norway, 249. Alum of Tennessee, 249. Alunogen, 219. Alvite of Norway, 249. Andalusite, analyses, 249. Anglesite of Sardinia, angles, 249. Apatite, of New Jersey, 249. Aragonite (Schaumkalk), 249, Astrophyllite, a mica, 250. Atacamite? of Vesuvius, 250. Binnite of Rinnen, 250. Boracite of Stassfurt, 250. Boronatrocalcite, 250. Bragite of Norway, 250. Breunnerite (‘lautoclin), 251. Calcite, 251. Carnallite of Stassfurt, 251. Chalcopyrite, 251. Chalybite, Rogers, 251. Cherokine, Shepard, 251. Chlorophanerite, Jenzsch, 251. Chrysolite, in serpentine, 251. Conistouite and Heddlite, 252. Copiapite, analysis, 252. Coquimbite, of Vesuvius, 252. Cryovlite, Greenland, 252. Cyanochrome, Vesuvius, 232. Cyanosite, Vesuvius, 252. Datholite, angies of, 252, Diallogite, 253. Diamond, Kohinoor, 273. Dolomite, 253. Dufrenoysite, C. Heusser, 253. Epidote in N Jersey, 253. Epiglanubite, Shepard, 256. Epsomite in Tennessee, 253. Erubescite, in Chili, 254, Feldspar, glassy, 254. Feldspar (Hyalophan and feist: one 254, Fergusonite 254. Fowlerite, 260. Freislebenite, 254. Galactite, 255. Galena, supersulphuretted, 255. Garnet, green, of Norway, 255, Melanite, 255. Gilbertite, E. Zschau, 255, Glaserite at Vesuvius, 255. Glaubapatite, Shepard, 256. Guano minerals, 255. Gypsum, 296. Tlarrisite, 256. Hematite, at Vesuvius, 256. Hitchcockite, 256. Hornblende, 257. Iron, meteoric, 271, 272, 374. Lanthanite, 257. INDEX. MINERALS— Lead, native, 257. Leucite of Vesuvius, 257, 272. Leucopyrite, Behncke, 257. Keilhauise, 257. Killinite, 257. Magnesite, Styria, 258. Marcasite of Hannover, 258. Mispickel, Behnceke, 253. Monazite, 262. Nitre, in Tennessee, 258. Opal, in Moravia, 253. Ozocerite, Glocker, 258. Paisbergite, 259. Pateraite, 253. Pectwlite, 258. Piauzite, 258. Picromerid, at Vesuvius, 258. Pinguite, in Moravia, 2538, Platinum of Borneo, 259, Pyroclasite, Shepard, 97. Pyroguanite minerals, 96. Pyromelane, Shepard, 96. 259. Pyrosclerite of Snarum, 259. Pyrotechnite, 261. Pyrrhotine. meteoric, 375. Quariz in capillary forms, ete., 259. Quicksilver in drift deposits, 259. * Rhodonite, Greg, 259. Sal-ammoniac, 261. | Salt at Vesuvius, 260. Serpentine of Roxbury, Ct., 260. Silver, native, at Cheshire, Ct., 260. Smitisonite. pseudomorphs, 260. Specular iron, 256, Sphene, decomposed, (Xanthitane,) 260. Stannite, Bischof, 260. Staurotide, Georgia, 260. Stibnite, 261. Suilbite (Hypostilbite), 179, 26!. Sulpnomelane, Glocker, 261. Tantalite of Limoges, 261. Thenardite of Vesuvius, 261. Tritomite, analysis, 261. Tschetf kinite, 261. Tyrite, 261. Urdite, Forbes, 262. Vanadinite of Carinthia, 262, Vivianite, 262. Voigtte, E. E. Schmid, 262. Volknerite, Rammelsberg, 263. Wittichite, 263, Woltrain, 263. Xenotime, 263. Zeolitic mineral from the Isle of Skye, Mullet, 179, Zincite, 263, Minerals, artificial furnace products, 248. Mineralogy. 3d Supplement to Dana’s, 246. : list of new works, 246. Mississippi River, times of closing and open- ing, LOS. Purvin, 149, Moon, Secchi's drawing of, 265. Murchison, R. I, letter on the Museum of of Practical Geology. 252. Muscles, composition of, Valenciennes, 9. N Nebraska fossils, 118, 423, Neo-macropia, 3J1, 459 New South Shetlands, crustacean from, and remarks on, 394. New Zealand, changes of level at, 128. new Dinornis of, Owen, 138. Nickel, sulphate of, 103. Nicklés, J., correspondence of 99, 264. Nicklés, E., on amorphous phosphorus, 244. Nitrogen, specific volume of compounds con- taining nitrogen 108. North Carolina, hailstorm in, 298. O Osrruary—Buckland, 449. J. Locke, 304." J G Percival, 150. D. Sharpe, 152. Z. Thompson, 44. J.C. Warren, 151. Binet, 264. Observatory at Paris, 265. ** Annals” of, 265. at Albany, 442. at University of Mississippi, 290. Oregon, new ferns, D. C. Eaton, 138. Owen, on a new Vinornis, 138. Ozone, on atmospheric, Scoutetten, 140. W. B. Rogers, 141. Andrews, 4U3. P Paleeoscincus, fossil reptile, 118. Paris, Geographical society, 148. Parvin, T. S., closing and opening of Mis- sissippi, 149. Percival, J. G., obituary of, 150. Peru, mineral coal in, 274. Phosphorus, amorphous, £. Nicklés, 244, Phosphorus in poisoning, detection of, 107, Photographs, artificial light for, 301. Photographic process with wax paper, W. Crookes, 159. Piesse, G. W. S., Art of Perfumery, by, noticed, 150. Planets, Leda (33), 140. Leetitia (39), 140. Harmonia (40), 440. Dapline (41), Isis (42), 441. Plants, De Candolle’s Geography of, noticed, 429. Embryo of, 432. see farther, Botany. Polythalamian, see Foraminiferous. Porcelain, manufacture of Chinese, 101. Posidouia Pa, Lea, 123, Potato, wild in New Mexico and Texas, 284. Proportions in nature, 454. Q Quarterly Journal of Pure Mathematics, noticed, 453. R Railroad to Pacific, explorations for, 67. Ratios in nature, 454. Redfield, W. C., Relation of fossil fishes to age of Newark sandstone, 357. Reg nault, Specific heat of some elements, 108. Reptiles, fossil, from Nebraska, 118. fossil, Pa., Lea, 122. River floods, France, 267. ky Mts., exploration for railroad acrosa, 7. 460 Rogers, W. B., on ozone, 141. Trilobites from near Boston, 296. ~ Ronalds and Richurdson’s Chemical Tech- nology, noticed, 149. Ruhmkorff’s apparatus, effects with, 268. S Safford, J. M., on the genus Tetradium, 286. Geology of Tennesee, 129. Scacchi, Vesuvian minerals, 246 and beyond Sandstone of Connecticut, etc, relation of fossil fishes of, W. C. Redfield, 357. Trask, J. B., earthquakes in California, 110. Trilobites from near Boston, W. B. Rogers, 296. Trionyx, from Nebraska, 120. . Troodon, fossil reptile, 119. Turkey, new, of Mexico, 139. U “ U. States, statistics of Flora of Northern, A. Gray, 204. Vv called Newark sandstones, by||Vienna Geological transactions, 453, W.C. Redfield, 357, Dana, 321. | Pa., fossils of, Lea, 123. Sea of Kamtschatka, soundings in, Bailey, 1 Secchi, view of part of moon, 265. Selenium, isomeric modifications of, Reg- nault, 108. crystalline form, 271. Serapis, changes in, Lyell, 126. | Shepard, C. U., new minerals, 96. | Shooting stars of August, 1856, 290. | Shumard, Eleutherocrinus, 120. Specific gravity apparatus, Eckfeldt and Du-| bois, 294. Spillman, W , meteor of July 8, 448. Sponges, Bowerbank, 439. Spongeous origin of siliceous bodies of chalk, Soda, manufacture of, Leblanc’s process, = Wor Squier, E. G., prize to, 148. Star-fishes, Palseozoic, Salter, 415. Steam engine, R. Clausius on, 180, 364. Stereoscopic experiment, Lugeol, 104. Strychnia, methods of detecting, 413. Students visiting Europe, information to, 146. Suez, level and character of isthmus, 273. Sugars, two, from California, 6. Sun's rays, heat in, 277, 388. th Taurine, 13. aren W. J., meteoric iron of Xiquipilco, Telescope, equatorial, Porro, 103. Tetradium, J. M. Safford on, 236. Thompson, Z., obituary, 44. Tides at Ponape, Carolines, 142. Volcanoes of Southern Italy, Deville, 272. Volcano, eruption of Hawaian, Coan, 240. | Voltaic, see Galvanic. W Warren, J. C., obituary of, 151. |Waters of the Dead Sea, 301. of the Caspian, density of, 301, in the Desert of Sahara, 301. of Delaware river, H. Wurtz, 124, 301. of Lake Ooroomiah, 276. specific gravity, etc., of several salt, 277. Weddell’s Chloris Andina, noticed, 437. Western Academy of Nat. Sci., 150. Whitney, J. D., iron ore of Azoic system, 38. Wollaston’s Insecta Maderensia, noticed, 28. Woodbridge, W. E., pressure of fired gun- powder, 153. ks, French, noticed, 269. Botanical, see Botany. | Wurtz on ether and its homologues, 107. Wurtz, H., on water of Delaware, 124. 1 Yandell, Eleutherocrinus, 120. Z Zeising, A.,-work by, noticed, 454, Zoology, see Crustacea, Insecta, Fossil. value of a genus and species in, Wollas- ton, 287. young of gar-pikes, 440. mollusks of California coast, P, Carpen- ter, 438. a new turkey of Mexico, 139. a new Dinornis, 138. 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